Editing Psychotherapy (section)

== History ==
{{See also|History of psychotherapy|Timeline of psychotherapy}}

Psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as medics, philosophers, spiritual practitioners and people in general used psychological methods to heal others.<ref>[http://www.electrummagazine.com/2013/03/ancient-classical-roots-of-psychology/ Ancient Classical Roots of Psychology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723120858/http://www.electrummagazine.com/2013/03/ancient-classical-roots-of-psychology/ |date=23 July 2015 }} Laura Rehwalt in History of Science, Electrum Magazine, 2 March 2013</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=v_2sAgAAQBAJ Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723053023/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v_2sAgAAQBAJ |date=23 July 2015 }} Sharon G. Mijares, Routledge, 14 January 2014 {{ISBN|1317788001}}</ref>

In the [[Western culture|Western tradition]], by the 19th century, a [[moral treatment]] movement (then meaning morale or mental) developed based on non-invasive non-restraint therapeutic methods.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlson ET, Dain N | title = The psychotherapy that was moral treatment | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 117 | issue = 6 | pages = 519–24 | date = December 1960 | pmid = 13690826 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.117.6.519 }}</ref> Another influential movement was started by [[Franz Mesmer]] (1734–1815) and his student [[Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur]] (1751–1825). Called Mesmerism or animal magnetism, it would have a strong influence on the rise of [[dynamic psychology]] and psychiatry as well as theories about [[hypnosis]].<ref>Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). ''The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry.'' New York: Basic Books.</ref><ref>Gielen, U. P., & Raymond, J. (2015). The curious birth of psychological healing in the Western World (1775–1825): From Gaßner to Mesmer to Puységur. In G. Rich & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), ''Pathfinders in international psychology'' (pp. 25–51). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.</ref> In 1853, [[Walter Cooper Dendy]] introduced the term "psycho-therapeia" regarding how physicians might influence the mental states of patients and thus their bodily ailments, for example by creating opposing emotions to promote mental balance.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/careofpsychehist0000jack|url-access=registration|title=Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing|first=Stanley W.|last=Jackson|author1-link=Stanley W. Jackson|date=29 September 1999|publisher=Yale University Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0300147339}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=cpjgoazGIC4C The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707050115/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cpjgoazGIC4C&dq |date=7 July 2015 }} Mark Jackson, OUP Oxford, 25 August 2011. Pg527</ref> [[Daniel Hack Tuke]] cited the term and wrote about "psycho-therapeutics" in 1872 in his book ''[[Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease]]'', in which he also proposed making a science of [[animal magnetism]].<ref name=Shamdasani>Shamdasani S. (2005) [https://archive.today/20160904013640/http://hhs.sagepub.com/content/18/1/1.short 'Psychotherapy': the invention of a word] History of the Human Sciences 18(1):1–22</ref><ref>Tuke, Daniel Hack [[iarchive:illustrationsofi00tuke|Illustrations of the influence of the mind upon the body in health and disease: designed to elucidate the action of the imagination]] Henry C. Lea. Philadelphia: 1873</ref> [[Hippolyte Bernheim]] and colleagues in the "[[Nancy, France|Nancy]] School" developed the concept of "psychotherapy" in the sense of using the mind to heal the body through [[hypnotism]], yet further.<ref name=Shamdasani/> Charles Lloyd Tuckey's 1889 work, ''Psycho-therapeutics, or Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion'' popularized the work of the Nancy School in English.<ref name=Shamdasani/><ref>Tuckey, C. Lloyd [https://archive.org/details/b2040766x Psycho-therapeutics, or, Treatment by sleep and suggestion] Balliere, Tindall, and Cox. London: 1889</ref> Also in 1889 a clinic used the word in its title for the first time, when [[Frederik van Eeden]] and Albert Willem van Renterghem in [[Amsterdam]] renamed theirs "Clinique de Psycho-thérapeutique Suggestive" after visiting Nancy.<ref name=Shamdasani/> During this time, travelling [[stage hypnosis]] became popular, and such activities added to the scientific controversies around the use of hypnosis in medicine.<ref name=Shamdasani/> Also in 1892, at the second congress of experimental psychology, van Eeden attempted to take the credit for the term psychotherapy and to distance the term from hypnosis.<ref name=Shamdasani/> In 1896, the German journal Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Suggestionstherapie, Suggestionslehre und verwandte psychologische Forschungen changed its name to Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Psychotherapie sowie andere psychophysiologische und psychopathologische Forschungen, which is probably the first journal to use the term.<ref name=Shamdasani/> Thus psychotherapy initially meant "the treatment of disease by psychic or hypnotic influence, or by suggestion".<ref name=OED/>

[[Image:Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Freud, seated left of picture with Jung seated at the right of the picture. 1909]]

[[Sigmund Freud]] visited the Nancy School and his early [[neurological]] practice involved the use of hypnotism. However following the work of his mentor [[Josef Breuer]]—in particular a case where symptoms appeared partially resolved by what the patient, [[Bertha Pappenheim]], dubbed a "[[talking cure]]"—Freud began focusing on conditions that appeared to have psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the [[unconscious mind]]. He went on to develop techniques such as [[free association (psychology)|free association]], [[dream interpretation]], [[transference]] and analysis of the [[id, ego and superego]]. His popular reputation as the father of psychotherapy was established by his use of the distinct term "[[psychoanalysis]]", tied to an overarching system of theories and methods, and by the effective work of his followers in rewriting history.<ref name=Shamdasani/> Many theorists, including [[Alfred Adler]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Karen Horney]], [[Anna Freud]], [[Otto Rank]], [[Erik Erikson]], [[Melanie Klein]] and [[Heinz Kohut]], built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often developed their own systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as ''[[psychodynamic]]'', meaning anything that involved the [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'s [[conscious]]/[[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] influence on external relationships and the self. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.

[[Behaviorism]] developed in the 1920s, and [[behavior modification]] as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were [[Joseph Wolpe]] in South Africa, [[Monte B. Shapiro|M.B. Shapiro]] and [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref>{{cite journal  |last=Eysenck |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Eysenck | title = The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation | journal = Journal of Consulting Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 319–24 | date = October 1952 | pmid = 13000035 | doi = 10.1037/h0063633}}</ref> in Britain, and [[John B. Watson]] and [[B.F. Skinner]] in the United States. [[Behavioral therapy]] approaches relied on principles of [[operant conditioning]], [[classical conditioning]] and [[social learning theory]] to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for [[phobias]], as well as other disorders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Behaviorism {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/ |access-date=15 March 2022 }}</ref>

Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of [[existential philosophy]]. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field (e.g., [[Irvin Yalom]], [[Rollo May]]) and Europe ([[Viktor Frankl]], [[Ludwig Binswanger]], [[Medard Boss]], [[Ronald David Laing|R.D.Laing]], [[Emmy van Deurzen]]) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common "life crises" springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e.g., [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Gabriel Marcel]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]). The uniqueness of the [[therapeutic relationship|patient-therapist relationship]] thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic inquiry. A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with [[Carl Rogers]]. Based also on the works of [[Abraham Maslow]] and his [[hierarchy of human needs]], Rogers brought [[person-centered psychotherapy]] into mainstream focus. The primary requirement was that the client receive three core "conditions" from his counselor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, sometimes described as "prizing" the client's humanity; congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency]; and [[empathy|empathic understanding]]. This type of interaction was thought to enable clients to fully experience and express themselves, and thus develop according to their innate potential.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Person Centred Therapy – Core Conditions {{!}} Simply Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/client-centred-therapy.html |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=www.simplypsychology.org}}</ref> Others developed the approach, like [[Fritz Perls|Fritz]] and [[Laura Perls]] in the creation of [[Gestalt therapy]], as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of [[Nonviolent Communication]], and [[Eric Berne]], founder of [[transactional analysis]]. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as [[humanistic psychology|humanistic psychotherapy]] today. Self-help groups and books became widespread.

During the 1950s, [[Albert Ellis (psychologist)|Albert Ellis]] originated [[rational emotive behavior therapy]] (REBT). Independently a few years later, psychiatrist [[Aaron T. Beck]] developed a form of psychotherapy known as [[cognitive therapy]]. Both of these included relatively short, structured and present-focused techniques aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals and reaction-patterns, by contrast with the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psychodynamic or humanistic therapies. Beck's approach used primarily the [[socratic method]], and links have been drawn between ancient [[stoicism|stoic]] philosophy and these cognitive therapies.<ref name="RobertsonUS952010">{{Cite book |last= Robertson |first= Daniel |title= The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy |year= 2010 |publisher= Karnac |location= London |isbn= 9781855757561|page=xix}}</ref>

Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were increasingly combined and grouped under the umbrella term [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT are oriented towards active/directive yet collaborative [[empiricism]] (a form of reality-testing), and assessing and modifying core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including [[acceptance and commitment therapy]] and [[dialectical behavior therapy]], which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components and [[mindfulness (psychology)|mindfulness]] exercises. However the "third wave" concept has been criticized as not essentially different from other therapies and having roots in earlier ones as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hofmann|first=Stefan G.|date=1 December 2008|title=Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: New Wave or Morita Therapy?|journal=Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice|volume=15|issue=4|pages=280–285|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00138.x|issn=1468-2850}}</ref> Counseling methods developed include [[solution focused brief therapy|solution-focused therapy]] and [[systemic coaching]].

[[Postmodern]] psychotherapies such as [[narrative therapy]] and [[coherence therapy]] do not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather see the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. [[Systemic therapy]] also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and [[transpersonal psychology]], which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Other orientations developed in the last three decades include [[feminist therapy]], [[brief therapy]], [[somatic psychology]], [[expressive therapy]], applied [[positive psychology]] and the [[human givens]] approach. A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilized models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.psychotherapynetworker.org/magazine/populartopics/219-the-top-10 |title= The top 10: The most influential therapists of the past quarter-century |magazine= Psychotherapy Networker |date=March–April 2007 |access-date= 7 October 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110205113426/http://www.psychotherapynetworker.org/magazine/populartopics/219-the-top-10 |archive-date= 5 February 2011}}</ref>