Editing Psilocybe cubensis (section)

==Psychedelic and entheogenic use==
[[File:Pcubmazatapec.jpg|thumb|right|''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
Singer noted in 1949 that ''Psilocybe cubensis'' had psychoactive properties.<ref name=guzmanchapter>{{cite book |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gastón |title=Fungi from Different Environments |date=2009 |chapter=The Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Diversity, Traditions, Use and Abuse with Special Reference to the Genus Psilocybe |publisher=Science Publishers |location=Enfield, New Hampshire |isbn=978-1-57808-578-1 |url=https://fmedicine.ajums.ac.ir/_fmedicine/Documents/Fungi%20from%20different%20environments_20130420_151816.pdf#page=269 |pages=269–290 |access-date=2021-05-13 |archive-date=2021-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513113635/https://fmedicine.ajums.ac.ir/_fmedicine/Documents/Fungi%20from%20different%20environments_20130420_151816.pdf#page=269 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In Australia, the use of psychoactive mushrooms grew rapidly between 1969 and 1975.<ref name=allenmerlin1991/>

In a 1992 paper, locals and tourists in Thailand were reported to consume ''P. cubensis'' and related species in mushroom omelets—particularly in [[Ko Samui]] and [[Ko Pha-ngan]]. At times, omelets were adulterated with LSD, resulting in prolonged intoxication. A thriving subculture had developed in the region. Other localities, such as [[Hat Yai]], [[Ko Samet]], and [[Chiang Mai]], also had some reported usage.<ref name=allenmerlin92>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0378-8741(92)90020-R|title=Psychoactive mushroom use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand|year=1992|last1=Allen|first1=John W.|last2=Merlin|first2=Mark D.|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=35|issue=3|pages=205–228|pmid=1548895}}</ref>

In 1996, jars of honey containing ''Psilocybe cubensis'' were confiscated at the Dutch-German border. Upon examination, it was revealed that jars of honey containing psychedelic mushrooms were being sold at Dutch coffee shops.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bogusz |first1=M. J. |last2=Maier |first2=R. D. |last3=Schäfer |first3=A. T. |last4=Erkens |first4=M. |date=1998 |title=Honey with Psilocybe mushrooms: a revival of a very old preparation on the drug market? |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9587797/ |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=147–150 |doi=10.1007/s004140050135 |issn=0937-9827 |pmid=9587797|s2cid=34213721 }}</ref>

''P. cubensis'' is one of the most widely known of the psilocybin-containing mushrooms used for triggering [[psychedelic experience]]s after ingestion.
Its major alkaloids are:

* [[Psilocybin]] (4-phosphoryloxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine)
* [[Psilocin]] (4-hydroxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine)
* [[Baeocystin]] (4-phosphoryloxy-''N''-methyltryptamine)
* [[Norbaeocystin]] (4-phosphoryloxytryptamine)
* [[Aeruginascin]] (''N,N,N''-trimethyl-4-phosphoryloxytryptamine)

The potential psychoactivity of other compounds other than psilocybin and psilocin has been speculated but not confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherwood |first1=Alexander |title=Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin |journal=Journal of Natural Products |date=2020-02-28 |pages=461–467 |doi=10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32077284/}}</ref>

The concentrations of psilocin and psilocybin, as determined by [[high-performance liquid chromatography]], are in the range of 0.14–0.42% (wet weight) and 0.37–1.30% (dry weight) in the whole mushroom 0.17–0.78% (wet weight) and 0.44–1.35% (dry weight) in the cap, and 0.09%–0.30% (wet weight) and 0.05–1.27% (dry weight) in the stem, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsujikawa |first1=Kenji |last2=Kanamori |first2=Tatsuyuki |last3=Iwata |first3=Yuko |last4=Ohmae |first4=Yoshihito |last5=Sugita |first5=Ritsuko |last6=Inoue |first6=Hiroyuki |last7=Kishi |first7=Tohru |title=Morphological and chemical analysis of magic mushrooms in Japan |journal=Forensic Science International |date=December 2003 |volume=138 |issue=1–3 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.08.009 |pmid=14642723 }}</ref> For quickly and practically measuring the psychoactive contents of most healthy ''Psilocybe cubensis'' varieties, it can generally be assumed that there is approximately 15&nbsp;mg (+/- 5&nbsp;mg) of psilocybin per gram of dried mushroom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laussmann |first1=Tim |last2=Meier-Giebing |first2=Sigrid |date=2010 |title=Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0379073809004927 |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=160–164|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013 |pmid=20047807 }}</ref> Furthermore, due to factors such as age and storage method, the psilocybin and psilocin content of a given sample of mushrooms will vary.

Individual body composition, brain chemistry and psychological predisposition play a significant role in determining appropriate doses. For a modest psychedelic effect, a minimum of one gram of dried ''Psilocybe cubensis'' mushrooms is ingested orally, 0.25–1&nbsp;gram is usually sufficient to produce a mild effect, 1–2.5&nbsp;grams usually provides a moderate effect and 2.5&nbsp;grams and higher usually produces strong effects.<ref name="erowiddosage">{{cite web|url=https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_dose.shtml |title=Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage|access-date=2006-11-26|publisher=Erowid|year=2006|author=Erowid|format=shtml}}</ref> For most people, 3.5 dried grams (1/8 oz) would be considered a high dose and may produce an intense experience; this is, however, typically considered a standard dose among recreational users. Body composition (usually weight) should be taken into account when calculating dosage. For many individuals, doses above three&nbsp;grams may be overwhelming. For a few rare people, doses as small as 0.25&nbsp;gram can produce full-blown effects normally associated with very high doses. For most people, however, that dose level would have virtually no effects.

There are many different ways to ingest ''Psilocybe cubensis''. Users may prefer to take them raw, freshly harvested, or dried and preserved. It is also possible to prepare culinary dishes such as pasta or tea with the mushrooms. However, the psychoactive compounds begin to break down rapidly at temperatures exceeding 100&nbsp;°C (212&nbsp;°F).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gotvaldová |first=Klára |date=2021 |title=Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis |url=https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/PREVENTIONWELLNESS/Documents/Stability%20of%20Psilocybin%20and%20Analogs.pdf |journal= Drug Testing and Analysis|volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=439–446 |doi=10.1002/dta.2950 |pmid=33119971 |s2cid=226205357 }}</ref> Another method of ingestion known as "Lemon Tekking" involves combining pulverized ''Psilocybe cubensis'' with a concentrated citrus juice with a pH of ~2. Many users believe that a considerable amount of the psilocybin will have been [[Dephosphorylation|dephosphorylated]] into psilocin, the psychoactive metabolite, by citric acid. However, this claim is not substantiated by the literature on the metabolism of psilocybin, as dephosphorylation is known to be mediated by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase in humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Dinis-Oliveira | first=Ricardo Jorge | title=Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance | journal=Drug Metabolism Reviews | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=49 | issue=1 | date=2 January 2017 | issn=0360-2532 | doi=10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228 | pages=84–91| pmid=28074670 | s2cid=7656157 }}</ref> It is therefore more likely that citric acid mostly helps in breakdown of mushroom cells, aiding in digestion and  psilocybin release.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The "Lemon Tekk" method of consumption results in a more rapid onset and can offer easier digestion or reduced "come-up pressure" associated with raw consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horita |first1=A |last2=Weber |first2=L.J. |date=1961 |title=The Enzymatic Dephosphorylation and Oxidation of Psilocybin and Psilocin by Mammalian Tissue Homogenates |journal=Biochemical Pharmacology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=47–54|doi=10.1016/0006-2952(61)90124-1 |pmid=13715852 }}</ref>

Upon ingestion, effects usually begin after approximately 20–60 minutes (depending on the method of ingestion and stomach contents) and may last from four to ten hours, depending on dosage, potency of cultivar, and individual biochemistry. Visual distortions often occur, including walls that seem to breathe, a vivid enhancement of colors, and the animation of organic shapes.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

The effects of high doses can be overwhelming depending on the particular phenotype of cubensis, grow method, and the individual. It is recommended not to eat wild mushrooms without properly identifying them as they may be [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Roger |title=Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America |year=2010 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-651-2 |page=231}}</ref> In particular, similar species include mushrooms of the genus ''[[Galerina]]'' and ''[[Pholiotina rugosa]]''—all potentially deadly—and ''[[Chlorophyllum molybdites]]''. All of these grow in pastures, a similar habitat to that preferred by ''P. cubensis''.<ref name=allenmerlin1991/>
[[File:Psilocybe cubensis spore print.jpg|thumb|Spore print of ''Psilocybe cubensis'']]
In 2019, a 15-year-old boy suffered from transient kidney failure after eating ''P. cubensis'' from a cultivation kit in Canada. No one else in the group suffered any ill effects.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.mmcr.2018.12.007|title=Acute renal injury caused by confirmed Psilocybe cubensis mushroom ingestion|year=2019|last1=Austin|first1=Emily|last2=Myron|first2=Hilary S.|last3=Summerbell|first3=Richard K.|last4=MacKenzie|first4=Constance A.|journal=Medical Mycology Case Reports|volume=23|pages=55–57|pmid=30627509|pmc=6322052}}</ref>

===Legality===
{{Main|Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms}}

[[Psilocybin]] and [[psilocin]] are listed as [[Schedule I drug]]s under the United Nations 1971 [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]].<ref>{{cite report|title=List of psychotropic substances under international control|edition=29|publisher=[[International Narcotics Control Board]] |date=2018|url=https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/attachments/10458/Green_list_ENG_V18-02416.pdf}}</ref>  However, mushrooms containing psilocybin and psilocin are not illegal in some parts of the world.  For example, in Brazil they are legal, but extractions from the mushroom containing psilocybin and psilocin remain illegal. In the United States, growing or possessing ''Psilocybe cubensis'' mushrooms is illegal in all states, but it is legal to possess and buy the spores for microscopy purposes. However, as of May 8, 2019, [[Denver|Denver, Colorado]],  decriminalized it for those 21 and up. On June 4, 2019, [[Oakland, California]], followed suit, decriminalizing psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as the [[Peyote]] cactus.<ref>{{cite news |title=Oakland second city in USA to allow 'magic mushrooms' |newspaper=[[East Bay Times]] |location=California, USA |publisher= |date=2019-06-04 |url=https://www.eastbaytimes.com/2019/06/04/oakland-second-city-in-usa-to-allow-magic-mushrooms/ |access-date=2023-02-04 }}</ref> On January 29, 2020, [[Santa Cruz, California]], decriminalized naturally occurring psychedelics, including psilocybin mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doubleblindmag.com/breaking-news-santa-cruz-decriminalize-nature-entheogenic-plants-and-fungi/|title=Breaking: Santa Cruz City Council Votes to Decriminalize Entheogenic Plants and Fungi|date=2020-01-29|website=DoubleBlind Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref> On November 3, 2020, the state of Oregon decriminalized possession of psilocybin mushrooms for recreational use and granted licensed practitioners permission to administer psilocybin mushrooms to individuals age 21 years and older.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oregon measure 109 |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_109,_Psilocybin_Mushroom_Services_Program_Initiative_(2020) |website=Ballotpedia.org |publisher=Ballotpedia |access-date=10 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Oregon measure 110 |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Oregon_Measure_110,_Drug_Decriminalization_and_Addiction_Treatment_Initiative_(2020) |website=Ballotpedia.org |publisher=Ballotpedia |access-date=10 November 2020}}</ref>

In 1978, the Florida Supreme Court ruled in ''Fiske vs Florida'' that possession of psilocybin mushrooms is not illegal, in that the mushrooms cannot be considered a "container" for psilocybin based on how the law is written, i.e., it does not specifically state that psilocybin mushrooms themselves are illegal, but that the hallucinogenic constituents in them are. According to this decision, the applicable statute as framed imparts no information as to which plants may contain psilocybin in its natural state and does not advise a person of ordinary intelligence that this substance is contained in a particular variety of mushroom. The statute, therefore, cannot constitutionally be applied to the appellant.<ref name="JustiaLaw2020">{{cite web |title=Fiske v. State |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/florida/supreme-court/1978/50796-0.html |website=Justia Law |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919004247/http://law.justia.com/cases/florida/supreme-court/1978/50796-0.html |archive-date=19 September 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="PsychedelicScienceReview2020">{{cite news |title=Florida Court Rules Psilocybin Mushrooms Are Not a 'Container' for Psilocybin Based on How the Law is Written |url=https://psychedelicreview.com/event/fiske-v-florida/ |website=Psychedelic Science Review |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821162155/https://psychedelicreview.com/event/fiske-v-florida/ |archive-date=21 August 2020 |date=2020 }}</ref>

The production, sale and possession of magic mushrooms is illegal in Canada.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-use/controlled-illegal-drugs/magic-mushrooms.html | title=Psilocybin and psilocin (Magic mushrooms) | date=12 January 2012 }}</ref>