Editing Postpartum depression (section)

==Postpartum depression in fathers ==
Paternal postpartum depression is a poorly understood concept with a limited evidence-base. However, postpartum depression affects 8 to 10% of fathers.<ref name="Scarff-2019">{{cite journal | vauthors = Scarff JR | title = Postpartum Depression in Men | journal = Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 16 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 11–14 | date = May 2019 | pmid = 31440396 | pmc = 6659987 }}</ref> There are no set criteria for men to have postpartum depression.<ref name="Scarff-2019"/> The cause may be distinct in males.<ref name = "Goodman_2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goodman JH | title = Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health | journal = Journal of Advanced Nursing | volume = 45 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–35 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14675298 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02857.x | doi-access = free }}</ref> Causes of paternal postpartum depression include hormonal changes during pregnancy, which can be indicative of father-child relationships.<ref name="Scarff-2019"/> For instance, male depressive symptoms have been associated with low testosterone levels in men.<ref name="Scarff-2019" /> Low prolactin, estrogen, and vasopressin levels have been associated with struggles with father-infant attachment, which can lead to depression in first-time fathers.<ref name="Scarff-2019" /> Symptoms of postpartum depression in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts. Postpartum depression in men is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery and is correlated with maternal depression, meaning that if the mother is experiencing postpartum depression, then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well.<ref name="Paulson_Bazemore_2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Paulson JF, Bazemore SD |date=May 2010 |title=Prenatal and postpartum depression in fathers and its association with maternal depression: a meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=303 |issue=19 |pages=1961–1969 |doi=10.1001/jama.2010.605 |pmid=20483973 |s2cid=27189811}}</ref> Postpartum depression in men leads to an increased risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience PPD can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, and distress, and reduce infant interaction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Suto M, Isogai E, Mizutani F, Kakee N, Misago C, Takehara K | title = Prevalence and Factors Associated With Postpartum Depression in Fathers: A Regional, Longitudinal Study in Japan | journal = Research in Nursing & Health | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | pages = 253–262 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27209152 | doi = 10.1002/nur.21728 }}</ref>

Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors =  | title = NewsCAP: Study finds postpartum depression also affects fathers | journal = The American Journal of Nursing | volume = 118 | issue = 11 | page = 12 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30358579 | doi = 10.1097/01.naj.0000547646.08156.11 | s2cid = 53025016 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Children as young as 3.5 years old may experience problems with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, indicating that paternal postpartum depression can have long-term consequences.<ref name = "Carlson_2023" /><ref name="Paulson_2010">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Carlson K, Mughal S, Azhar Y |date=2010 |title=Focusing on depression in expectant and new fathers: prenatal and postpartum depression not limited to |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=27 |via=Gale Academic Onefile}}</ref> Furthermore, if children as young as two are not frequently read to, this negative parent-child interaction can harm their expressive vocabulary.<ref name="Paulson_2010" /> A study focusing on low-income fathers found that increased involvement in their child's first year was linked to lower rates of postpartum depression.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Cassella C |date=2021-03-02 |title=Dads Who Take a More Hands-on Role Their Kid's First Year Have Better Mental Health |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/fathers-who-are-more-involved-in-the-first-year-show-better-mental-health |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=ScienceAlert |language=en-US}}</ref>