Editing Pluto (mythology) (section)

== Mysteries and cult ==
[[File:Eleusinian hydria Antikensammlung Berlin 1984.46.jpg|thumb|[[Hydria]] (''ca.'' 340 BC) depicting figures from the Eleusinian Mysteries]]
As Pluto gained importance as an embodiment of agricultural wealth within the Eleusinian Mysteries, from the 5th century BC onward the name Hades was increasingly reserved for the underworld as a place.<ref>Tsagalis, ''Inscribing Sorrow'', p. 102. The shift may have begun as early as the 6th century. The earliest evidence of the assimilation of Hades and Ploutos/Plouton is a [[Phiale (libation vessel)|phiale]] by the [[Douris (vase painter)|Douris]] painter, dating to ''ca.'' 490 BC, according to Jan N. Bremmer, "W. Brede Kristensen and the Religions of Greece and Rome," in ''Man, Meaning, and Mystery: Hundred Years of History of Religions in Norway. The Heritage of W. Brede Kristensen'' (Brill, 2000), pp. 125–126. A point of varying emphasis is whether the idea of Plouton as a god of wealth was a later development, or an inherent part of his nature, owing to the underground storage of grain in the ''[[pithos|pithoi]]'' that were also used for burial. For a summary of these issues, see Cora Angier Sowa, ''Traditional Themes and the Homeric Hymns'' (Bolchazy-Carducci, 1984, 2005), p. 356, note 105.</ref> Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditional [[Twelve Olympians]], and Hades seems to have received limited cult,<ref>Morrow, ''Plato's Cretan City'', p. 452; Long, ''The Twelve Gods'', p. 154.</ref> perhaps only at [[Elis (city)|Elis]], where the temple was opened once a year.<ref name="Farnell">Farnell, ''The Cults of the Greek States'', p. 281.</ref> During the time of [[Plato]], the Athenians periodically honored the god called ''Plouton'' with the "strewing of a couch" ''([[lectisternium|tên klinên strôsai]])''.<ref>Long, ''The Twelve Gods'', p. 179. See [[lectisternium]] for the "strewing of couches" in ancient Rome. Two inscriptions from [[Attica]] record the names of individuals who participated in the ritual at different times: ''[[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]]'' [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130823122309/http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main II<sup>2</sup>1933 and 1934], as cited by Robert Develin, ''Athenian Officials, 684–321 B.C.'' (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2003), p. 417.</ref> At [[Eleusis]], ''Plouton'' had his own priestess.<ref>Nicholas F. Jones, ''The Associations of Classical Athens: The Response to Democracy'' (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 125, citing ''[[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]]'' II<sup>2</sup>1363, dating ''ca.'' 330–270; Karl Kerényi, ''Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter'' (Princeton University Press, 1967), pp. 110–111.</ref> Pluto was worshipped with Persephone as a divine couple at [[Knidos]], [[Ephesos]], [[Mytilene]], and [[Sparta]] as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God ''([[wikt:θεός|Theos]])'' and Goddess ''(Thea)''.<ref>Tsagalis, ''Inscribing Sorrow'', pp. 101–102.</ref>

In the ritual texts of the [[mystery religions]] preserved by the so-called [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic]] or [[Dionysian Mysteries|Bacchic]] [[Totenpass|gold tablets]], from the late 5th century BC onward<ref>Fritz Graf and Sarah Iles Johnston, ''Ritual Texts and the Afterlife'' (Routledge, 2007), first page (not numbered).</ref> the name ''Hades'' appears more frequently than ''Plouton'', but in reference to the underground place:<ref>The recurring phrase "house of Hades" (῾Αΐδαο δόμος) can be read ambiguously as either the divine being or the place, or both. In the numbering of Graf and Johnston, ''Ritual Texts and the Afterlife'', "house of Hades" appears in Tablet 1, line 2 ([[Hipponion]], Calabria, [[Magna Graecia]], ''ca''. 400 BC), which refers again to Hades as a place ("what you are seeking in the darkness of murky Hades", line 9), with the king of the underworld (ὑποχθονίοι βασιλεϊ, ''hypochthonioi basilei'') alluded to in line 13; Tablet 2, line 1 (Petelia, present-day [[Strongoli]], Magna Graecia, 4th century BC); and Tablet 25 ([[Pharsalos]], [[Thessaly]], 350–300 BC). ''Hades'' is also discernible on the "carelessly inscribed" Tablet 38 from a Hellenistic-era grave in [[Hagios Athanasios]], near [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonike]].</ref> ''Plouton'' is the ruler who presides over it in a harmonious partnership<ref>Kevin Clinton, ''Myth and Cult: The Iconography of the Eleusinian Mysteries'' (Stockholm, 1992), p. 111, observing that this presentation in art contrasts with the earliest literary sources.</ref> with Persephone.<ref>Giovanni Casadio and Patricia A. Johnston, "Introduction", ''Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia'' (University of Texas Press, 2009), p. 21.</ref> By the end of the 4th century BC, the name ''Plouton'' appears in Greek metrical inscriptions.<ref>Tsagalis, ''Inscribing Sorrow'', p. 101.</ref> Two fragmentary tablets greet Pluto and Persephone jointly,<ref>Tablets 15 ([[Eleutherae|Eleuthera]] 6, 2nd/1st century BC) and 17 ([[Rethymnon]] 1, from the early [[Roman Empire]], 25–40 AD), from [[Crete]], in the numbering of Graf and Johnston.</ref> and the divine couple appear as welcoming figures in a metrical [[epitaph]]:

<blockquote>
I know that even below the earth, if there is indeed a reward for the worthy ones,<br />the first and foremost honors, nurse,<ref>Sometimes read as "father," as in the translation given by Alberto Bernabé and Ana Isabel Jiménez San Cristóbal, ''Instructions for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets'' (Brill, 2008), p. 84.</ref> shall be yours, next to Persephone and Pluto.<ref>Παρὰ Φερσεφόνει <!--sic-->Πλούτωνί τε: Tsagalis, ''Inscribing Sorrow'', pp. 100–101. Tsagalis discusses this inscription in light of the ''Homeric Hymn to Demeter'' and the [[Thesmophoria]].</ref>
</blockquote>

[[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] identifies Pluto with [[Eubuleus|Eubouleus]],<ref>The entry in Hesychius reads: Εὐβουλεύς (sch. Nic. Al. 14) · ὁ Πλούτων. παρὰ δὲ τοῖς πολλοῖς ὁ Ζεὺς ἐν Κυρήνη (''Eubouleus: ho Ploutôn. para de toîs polloîs ho Zeus en [[Cyrene, Libya|Kyrene]]''), 643 (Schmidt).</ref> but other ancient sources distinguish between these two underworld deities. In the Mysteries Eubouleus plays the role of a torchbearer, possibly a guide for the initiate's return.<ref>Kevin Clinton, "The Mysteries of Demeter and Kore," in ''A Companion to Greek Religion'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 347–353.</ref> In the view of [[Lewis Richard Farnell]], Eubouleus was originally a title referring to the "good counsel" the ruler of the underworld was able to give and which was sought at Pluto's [[#Sanctuaries of Pluto|dream oracles]]; by the 2nd century BC, however, he had acquired a separate identity.<ref>[[Lewis Richard Farnell]], ''The Cults of the Greek States'', vol. 3, p. 145.</ref>

=== ''Orphic Hymn to Pluto'' ===
The ''Orphic Hymn to Pluto'' addresses the god as "strong-spirited" and the "All-Receiver" who commands death and is the master of mortals. His titles are given as ''Zeus Chthonios'' and ''Euboulos'' ("Good Counsel").<ref>''Euboulos'' may be a cult title here and not the name of the god Eubuleus; elsewhere it is an epithet of the sea god [[Nereus]], perfect in his knowledge of truth and justice, and in his own Orphic hymn the guardian of the "roots" of the sea. See [[Pindar]], ''Pythian Ode'' 3.93; Hesiod, ''Theogony'' 233–236; ''Orphic Hymn'' 23; Athanassakis, ''Hesiod'', p. 52; Pierre Bonnechere, "Trophonius of Lebadea: Mystery Aspects of an Oracular Cult in Boeotia," in ''Greek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Ancient Greek Secret Cults'' (Routledge, 2003, 2005), p. 188.</ref> In the hymn's [[topography]], Pluto's dwelling is in [[Tartarus]], simultaneously a "meadow" and "thick-shaded and dark," where the [[Acheron]] encircles "the roots of the earth." ''Hades'' is again the name of the place, here described as "windless," and its gates, through which Pluto carried "pure Demeter's daughter" as his bride, are located in an [[Attica|Attic]] cave within the district of [[Eleusis]]. The route from Persephone's meadow to Hades crosses the sea. The hymn concludes:

<blockquote>You alone were born to judge deeds obscure and conspicuous.<br />Holiest and illustrious ruler of all, frenzied god,<br />You delight in the worshiper's respect and reverence.<br />Come with favor and joy to the initiates. I summon you.<ref>The translations of the ''Orphic Hymn to Pluto'' are from Apostolos N. Athanassakis, ''The Orphic Hymns'' (Scholars Press, 1977).</ref>
</blockquote>

The hymn is one of several examples of Greco-Roman prayer that express a desire for the presence of a deity, and has been compared to a similar [[epiclesis]] in the ''[[Acts of Thomas]]''.<ref>''Act of Thomas'' 50, as cited and discussed by Susan E. Myers, ''Spirit Epicleses in the Acts of Thomas'' (Mohr Siebeck, 2010), p. 174.</ref>

=== Magic invocations ===
The names of both Hades and Pluto appear also in the [[Greek Magical Papyri]] and [[curse tablet]]s, with Hades typically referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto regularly invoked as the partner of Persephone.<ref>[[Hans Dieter Betz]], ''The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation'' (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1992), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K0hCj5u3HNQC&q=hades passim]; John G. Gager, ''Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World'' (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 12 (examples invoking Pluto pp. 99, 135, 143–144, 207–209) and ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rmhw2eVJnS0C&q=hades passim]'' on Hades.</ref> Five Latin curse tablets from Rome, dating to the mid-1st century BC, promise Persephone and Pluto an offering of "[[Phoenix dactylifera|dates]], [[Common fig#Cultural aspects|figs]], and a black [[Cultural references to pigs#In religion|pig]]" if the curse is fulfilled by the desired deadline. The pig was a characteristic [[animal sacrifice]] to chthonic deities, whose [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#victima|victims]] were almost always black or dark in color.<ref>Bolt, ''Jesus' Defeat of Death'', p. 152; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' (Blackwell, 2007), p. 264.</ref>

A set of curse tablets written in [[Doric Greek]] and found in a tomb addresses a Pasianax, "Lord to All,"<ref>Daniel Ogden, ''Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds'' (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 212, with English translation of the curse.</ref> sometimes taken as a title of Pluto,<ref>Gager, ''Curse Tablets'', p. 131, with translations of both tablets, and note 35.</ref> but more recently thought to be a magical name for the corpse.<ref>Derek Collins, ''Magic in the Ancient Greek World'' (Blackwell, 2008), p. 73.</ref> ''Pasianax'' is found elsewhere as an epithet of Zeus, or in the tablets may invoke a ''[[daimon]]'' like [[Abrasax]].<ref>Esther Eidinow, "Why the Athenians Began to Curse," in ''Debating the Athenian Cultural Revolution: Art, Literature, Philosophy and Politics 430–380 BC'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 50; Ogden, ''Magic, Withcraft, and Ghosts'', p. 212.</ref>

=== Sanctuaries of Pluto ===
{{Main|Ploutonion}}
A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called a [[ploutonion]] (Latin ''plutonium''). The complex at [[Eleusis]] for the mysteries had a ploutonion regarded as the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos, in another instance of conflation or close association of the two gods.<ref>Bernard Dietrich, "The Religious Prehistory of Demeter's Eleusinian Mysteries," in ''La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' Impero Romano'' (Brill, 1982), p. 454.</ref> [[Inscriptiones Graecae|Greek inscriptions]] record an altar of Pluto, which was to be "plastered", that is, resurfaced for a new round of sacrifices at Eleusis.<ref>Robertson, ''Religion and Reconciliation'', p. 163 [https://books.google.com/books?id=5pyER-1-8VcC&dq=%22altar+of+pluto%22&pg=PA163 online], citing ''[[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]]'' 1<sup>3</sup>356.155 and ''IG'' 2<sup>2</sup>1672.140; see also ''The Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore: Topography and Architecture'' (American School of Classical Studies, 1997), p. 76, note 31.</ref> One of the known ploutonia was in the [[sacred grove]] between [[Tralleis]] and [[Nysa (Caria)|Nysa]], where a temple of Pluto and Persephone was located. Visitors sought healing and [[incubation (ritual)|dream oracles]].<ref>Strabo [https://books.google.com/books?id=lfMrAAAAYAAJ&dq=ploutonion+OR+plutonion+OR+plutonium+inauthor%3AStrabo&pg=PA25 14.1.44]; "Summaries of Periodicals," ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 7 (1891), p. 209; Hewitt, "The Propitiation of Zeus," p. 93.</ref> The ploutonion at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]], was connected to the rites of [[Cybele]], but during the [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial era]] was subsumed by the cult of [[Apollo]], as confirmed by archaeological investigations during the 1960s. It too was a dream oracle.<ref>Frederick E. Brenk, "Jerusalem-Hierapolis. The Revolt under Antiochos IV Epiphanes in the Light of Evidence for Hierapolis of Phrygia, Babylon, and Other Cities," in ''Relighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy, and in the New Testament Background'' (Franz Steiner, 1998), pp.  382–384, citing [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], ''Life of Isidoros'' 131 on the dream.</ref> The sites often seem to have been chosen because the presence of naturally occurring [[wikt:mephitic air|mephitic vapors]] was thought to indicate an opening to the underworld.<ref>Christiane Sourvinou-Inwood, "Reconstructing Change: Ideology and the Eleusinian Mysteries," in ''Inventing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Periodization and the Ancient World'' (Routledge, 1997), p. 137; [[Georg Luck]], ''Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 505.</ref> In Italy, [[Avernus]] was considered an entrance to the underworld that produced toxic vapors, but Strabo seems not to think that it was a ploutonion.<ref>Strabo C244–6, as cited by Daniel Ogden, ''Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook'' (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 190 –191.</ref>