Editing Piracy (section)

===Southeast Asia===
{{See also|Slavery in Sultanates of Southeast Asia|Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Piracy in Indonesia}}
[[File:The Iranun (Ilanun) Moro 'pirate'.jpg|upright|thumb|A 19th-century illustration of an [[Iranun]] pirate]]
In [[thalassocratic]] [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian cultures]] in [[Island Southeast Asia]], maritime raids for slaves and resources against rival polities have ancient origins. It was associated with prestige and prowess and often recorded in tattoos. Reciprocal raiding traditions were recorded by early European cultures as being prevalent throughout Island Southeast Asia.<ref name="warren"/><ref name="warren2"/><ref name="turbulent waters">{{cite journal |last1=Antony |first1=Robert J. |title=Turbulent Waters: Sea Raiding in Early Modern South East Asia |journal=The Mariner's Mirror |date=February 2013 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |doi=10.1080/00253359.2013.766996|s2cid=162926825 }}</ref><ref name="Lobato">{{cite book|editor1-last=Sim |editor1-first=Y.H. Teddy |title=Piracy and surreptitious activities in the Malay Archipelago and adjacent seas, 1600–1840 |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789812870858 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTwNBQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="junker">{{cite book |last1=Junker |first1=Laura Lee |title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms |date=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=9780824820350 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC}}</ref>
[[File:Iban Prahu.jpg|thumb|left|Iban war [[Perahu|prahu]] in Skerang river]]
[[File:Iranun lanong warship by Rafael Monleón (1890).jpg|left|thumb|1890 illustration by [[Rafael Monleón]] of a late 18th-century [[Iranun]] ''[[lanong]]'' warship. The [[Malay language|Malay]] word for "pirate", ''lanun'', originates from an [[exonym]] of the Iranun people]]
[[File:Double-barelled Lantaka of artistic design and Moro arms (c. 1900, Philippines).jpg|thumb|upright|Double-barrelled ''[[lantaka]]'' cannons, ''[[kalasag]]'' shields, armor, and various swords (including ''[[kalis]]'', ''[[panabas]]'', and ''[[kampilan]]'') used by [[Moro pirates]] in the Philippines (c. 1900)]]
With the advent of [[Islam]] and the [[Colonial Era|colonial era]], slaves became a valuable resource for trading with European, Arab, and Chinese slavers, and the volume of piracy and slave raids increased significantly.<ref name="junker"/> Numerous native peoples engaged in sea raiding; they include the [[Iranun]] and [[Balanguingui]] slavers of [[Sulu]], the [[Iban people|Iban]] [[headhunting|headhunter]]s of [[Borneo]], the [[Bugis]] sailors of [[South Sulawesi]], and the [[Malay people|Malays]] of western Southeast Asia. Piracy was also practiced by foreign seafarers on a smaller scale, including Chinese, Japanese, and European traders, renegades, and outlaws.<ref name="turbulent waters"/> The volume of piracy and raids were often dependent on the ebb and flow of trade and [[monsoon]]s, with pirate season (known colloquially as the "Pirate Wind") starting from August to September.<ref name="warren2"/>

Slave raids were of high economic importance to the Muslim Sultanates in the [[Sulu Sea]]: the [[Sultanate of Sulu]], the [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]], and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern [[Moro people]]). It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by [[Iranun]] and [[Banguingui]] slavers.<ref name="warren"/><ref name="warren2"/> David P. Forsythe put the estimate much higher, at around 2 million slaves captured within the first two centuries of Spanish rule of the [[Philippines]] after 1565.<ref>David P. Forsythe (2009). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC Encyclopedia of Human Rights, Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081028/https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC |date=December 26, 2022 }}''". Oxford University Press. p. 464. {{ISBN|0195334027}}</ref>

[[File:Bombardment Balanguingui.jpg|thumb|left|Spanish warships bombarding the [[Moro Pirates]] of the southern Philippines in 1848]]
These slaves were taken from piracy on passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the [[Malacca Strait]], [[Java]], the southern coast of China and the islands beyond the [[Makassar Strait]]. Most of the slaves were [[Tagalogs]], [[Visayans]], and "Malays" (including [[Bugis]], [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]], [[Iban people|Iban]], and [[Makassar people|Makassar]]). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives who were usually ransomed off through [[Tausug people|Tausug]] intermediaries of the [[Sulu Sultanate]]. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, they trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui [[slave market]]s. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.<ref name="warren">{{cite book|author=James Francis Warren|title =The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State|publisher =NUS Press|year =2007|pages=257–258|isbn =9789971693862}}</ref><ref name="turbulent waters"/><ref name="warren2">{{cite book|author =James Francis Warren|title =Iranun and Balangingi: Globalization, Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity|publisher =NUS Press|year =2002|pages =53–56|isbn =9789971692421|url =https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi|access-date =July 9, 2019|archive-date =July 4, 2019|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190704132211/https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi|url-status =live}}</ref>

The scale was so massive that the word for "pirate" in [[Malay language|Malay]] became ''lanun'', an [[exonym]] of the Iranun people. The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely run by slaves and the slave trade. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally, even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as [[galley slave]]s on the ''[[lanong]]'' and ''[[garay (ship)|garay]]'' warships of their captors. Female captives, however, were usually treated better. There were no recorded accounts of rapes, though some were starved for discipline. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in [[Jolo, Sulu|Jolo]] usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug ''[[datu]]'' from the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European ([[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]]) and Chinese traders as well as [[Visayan]] pirates (''renegados'').<ref name="warren2"/>
[[File:Top view Baluarte Watch Tower.jpg|thumb|236x236px|[[La Union Watchtowers|Baluarte Watchtower]], [[La Union]]. A 400-year-old Spanish-era structure built to guard against ''pirates'', later used in [[World War II]] as a communication tower for the [[United States Army Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon|USAFIP-NL]] airfield.]]
[[File:Curimao Watchtower, Curimao, Ilocos Norte.jpg|thumb|237x237px|Currimao Watchtower, [[Ilocos Norte]]. '[[Currimao]]' comes from the [[Ilocano language|Iloco]] term ''cumaws'' (pirates) and the Spanish word ''correr'' (to run), reflecting the warnings given by watchmen during pirate attacks.]]
Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. In [[Northern Luzon]] particularly in the [[Pangasinan]], [[Ilocos Region|Ilocos]] and [[Cagayan]], the coastal villages and towns, were frequently raided by Moro and Chinese pirates, locally known as ''tírong or cumaw'' (raiders, attackers or pirates). These pirates looted and burned villages (''[[Barrio|barrios]]'') and captured women and children for enslavement. To counter these threats, Spanish authorities constructed circular adobe [[Watchtower|watchtowers]], or ''baluartes'', measuring 6 to 7 meters high. These structures, built strategically along the coastline using coral blocks bonded with a mixture of lime and egg whites, served as both lookout points and defensive fortifications to protect villages from pirate attacks.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Meimban |first=Adriel Obar |title=La Union: The Making of a Province 1850-1921 |date=1997 |publisher=A.O. Meimban |isbn=9719183217 |edition=18 |series=La Union Before its Creation: Muslim Tirongs |location=Quezon City |publication-date=1997 |pages=22–23 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=de los Reyes |first=Isabelo |title=History of Ilocos |date=1890 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |isbn=9789715427296 |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Go |first=Antonio Calipjo |date=2015-12-24 |title=Ghost towns and pirates |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/91426/ghost-towns-and-pirates |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=INQUIRER.net |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:A Fight with Buginese perahu, watercolour by J.E. van Heemskerck van Beest, 1820.jpg|thumb|A fight between Filipino pirates, Bugis trading ship, and Dutch mariners.|left|240x240px]]
Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in [[Manila]], [[Cavite City|Cavite]], [[Cebu City|Cebu]], [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]], [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]], and [[Iligan]]. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the [[Visayas Islands]], including the construction of war "''barangayanes''" (''[[balangay]]'') that were faster than the Moro raiders and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, ''[[Lanong]]'' warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster ''[[garay (ship)|garay]]'' warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired [[steamship|steam gunboat]]s (''vapor''), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships.<ref name="warren" /><ref name="non">{{cite journal |last1=Non |first1=Domingo M. |title=Moro Piracy during the Spanish Period and Its Impact |journal=Southeast Asian Studies |volume=30 |issue=4 |date=1993 |pages=401–419 |doi=10.20495/tak.30.4_401 }}</ref><ref name="barrows">{{cite book|author =David P. Barrows|title =A History of the Philippines|publisher =American Book Company|year =1905|url =https://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm|access-date =July 9, 2019|archive-date =February 8, 2019|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190208005625/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm|url-status =live}}</ref>

Several famous pirates, such as ''Intjeh Cohdja'' and ''Wassingrana'', were hunted by the VOC for hijacking their merchant ships in the [[Eastern salient of Java]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anwar |first=H |date=2017 |title=TIGA ZAMAN SUKU BAJO MENGUASAI PERAIRAN NUSANTARA (Sejak Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Majaphit, sampai Republik Indonesia dan dari Selat Malaka sampai Mindanao) |url=https://conference.unsri.ac.id/index.php/sns/search/search?simpleQuery=TIGA+ZAMAN+SUKU+BAJO+MENGUASAI+PERAIRAN+NUSANTARA&searchField=query |journal=Seminar Nasional Sejarah III |volume=1 |pages=1}}</ref> 

Aside from the Iranun and Banguingui pirates, other polities were also associated with maritime raiding. The Bugis sailors of [[South Sulawesi]] were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets for piracy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.on-the-edge.com/articles/raja_ampat.php|title=The Buginese of Sulawesi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927102743/http://www.on-the-edge.com/articles/raja_ampat.php|archive-date=September 27, 2007}}</ref> The [[Orang laut]] pirates controlled shipping in the Straits of Malacca and the waters around Singapore,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thingsasian.com/story/pirates-east|title=Pirates of the East &#124; ThingsAsian|website=thingsasian.com|access-date=November 4, 2019|archive-date=October 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024015434/http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/1997|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Sea Dayak]] pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in [[Sarawak|Borneo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fullbooks.com/Wanderings-Among-South-Sea-Savages-And-in3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609213932/http://www.fullbooks.com/Wanderings-Among-South-Sea-Savages-And-in3.html|archive-date=June 9, 2008|title=Wanderings Among South Sea Savages And in Borneo and the Philippines by H. Wilfrid Walker}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2564/2564-h/2564-h.htm Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924211540/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2564/2564-h/2564-h.htm |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref>