Editing Peranakan Chinese (section)

==History==
{{More citations needed|section|date=March 2022}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Straatgezicht bij een Chinese tempel in Soerabaja TMnr 10015151.jpg|thumb|Hok An Kiong Chinese Temple, Jalan Coklat, [[Surabaya]] c. 1900 – 1920. Large Chinese communities were already present in [[Java]] when the Dutch arrived just before the 1600s. Many Chinese had native concubines until a large group of mestizos arose, who spoke Malay or Javanese.]]

The first Chinese immigrants to settle in the Malay Archipelago arrived from Guangdong and Fujian provinces in the 10th century C.E. They were joined by much larger numbers of the Chinese in the 15th through 17th centuries, following on the heels of the Ming emperor's reopening of Chinese-Malay trade relations in the 15th century.<ref name="West, Barbara A. 2009 657"/>

In the 15th century, some small city-states of the Malay Peninsula often paid tribute to various kingdoms such as those of China and [[Thailand|Siam]]. Close relations with China were established in the early 15th century during the reign of [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] when Admiral [[Zheng He]] (''Cheng Ho''), a Muslim Chinese, visited Malacca and Java during his expedition (1405–1433). According to a legend in 1459&nbsp;CE, the Emperor of China sent a princess, [[Hang Li Po]], to the Sultan of Malacca as a token of appreciation for his tribute. The nobles (500 sons of ministers) and servants who accompanied the princess initially settled in [[Bukit Cina]] and eventually grew into a class of [[Straits-born]] Chinese known as the Peranakans.

Chinese men in [[Melaka]] fathered children with [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Batak people|Batak]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] slave women. Their descendants moved to Penang and Singapore during the period of British rule.<ref>Rodgers (1996), p. 57 {{Google books|YFIGVqZ9ZKsC|Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese|page=57}}</ref> Chinese men in colonial southeast Asia also obtained slave wives from [[Nias]]. Chinese men in Singapore and Penang were supplied with slave wives of [[Bugis]], [[Batak]], and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] origin.<ref name="Klein1993">{{cite book|author=[[Martin A. Klein]]|title=Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/breakingchainssl00klei|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-13754-0}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The British colonial government tolerated the importation of slave wives since they improved the standard of living for the slaves and provided contentment to the male population.<ref name="Klein1993"/>{{rp|72}} The usage of slave women or house maids as wives by the Chinese was widespread.<ref name="Hussin2007">{{cite book|author=Nordin Hussin|title=Trade and Society in the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka and English Penang, 1780–1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRrd8EBOqxwC|year=2007|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-354-1|access-date=16 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617142521/https://books.google.com/books?id=TRrd8EBOqxwC|archive-date=17 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<blockquote>It cannot be denied, however, that the existence of slavery in this quarter, in former years, was of immense advantage in procuring a female population for [[Penang Island|Pinang]]. From [[Asahan Regency|Assaban]] alone, there used to be sometimes 300 slaves, principally females, exported to Malacca and Pinang in a year. The women get comfortably settled as the wives of opulent Chinese merchants, and live in the greatest comfort. Their families attach these men to the soil; and many never think of returning to their native country. The female population of Pinang is still far from being upon a par with the male; and the abolition therefore of slavery, has been a vast sacrifice to philanthropy and humanity. As the condition of the slaves who were brought to the British settlements, was materially improved, and as they contributed so much to the happiness of the male population, and the general prosperity of the settlement, I am disposed to think (although I detest the principles of slavery as much as any man), that the continuance of the system here could not, under the benevolent regulations which were in force to prevent abuse, have been productive of much evil. The sort of slavery indeed which existed in the British settlements in this quarter, had nothing but the name against it; for the condition of the slaves who were brought from the adjoining countries, was always ameliorated by the change; they were well fed and clothed; the women became wives of respectable Chinese; and the men who were in the least industrious, easily emancipated themselves, and many became wealthy. Severity by masters was punished; and, in short, I do not know any race of people who were, and had every reason to be, so happy and contented as the slaves formerly, and debtors as they are now called, who came from the east coast of Sumatra and other places.<ref>Anderson (1826) {{Google books|flvqWUGVD58C|Mission to the east coast of Sumatra: in M.DCCC.XXIII, under the direction of the government of Prince of Wales island: including historical and descriptive sketches of the country, an account of the commerce, population, and customs of the inhabitants, and a visit to the Batta cannibal states in the interior|page=298}}</ref><ref>Anderson {{Google books|flvqWUGVD58C|Mission to the east coast of Sumatra: in M.DCCC.XXIII|page=299}}</ref>
John Anderson – Agent to the Government of Prince of Wales Island</blockquote>

People of [[Thai Chinese|Chinese]] ancestry in [[Phuket]], [[Thailand]] make up a significant population, many of whom having descended from tin miners who migrated to the island during the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|year=2000|page=108|author=Annabelle Gambe|isbn=978-3-8258-4386-1}}</ref> The Peranakans there are known as "''Phuket Babas''" in the local tongue, constitute a fair share of members Chinese community, particularly among those who have family ties with the Peranakans of Penang and Malacca.<ref name="D'Oliveiro" />

Chinese who married local Javanese women and converted to Islam created a distinct Chinese Muslim Peranakan community in Java.<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book|author=Keat Gin Ooi|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1057|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|pages=1057–}}</ref> Chinese rarely had to convert to Islam to marry Javanese [[abangan]] women but a significant number of their offspring did, and Batavian Muslims absorbed the Chinese Muslim community which was descended from converts.<ref name="ReidAlilunas-Rodgers1996">{{cite book|author1=Anthony Reid|author2=Kristine Alilunas-Rodgers|title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC&pg=PA75|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2446-4|pages=75–}}</ref> Adoption of Islam back then was a marker of peranakan status which it no longer means. The Semaran Adipati and the Jayaningrat families were of Chinese origin.<ref name="Remmelink1990">{{cite book|author=Willem G. J. Remmelink|title=Emperor Pakubuwana II, Priyayi & Company and the Chinese War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6wuAQAAIAAJ&q=The+general+term+for+Javanized+Chinese+was+peranakan,+which+nowadays+simply+means+locally+born,+but+at+the+time+also|year=1990|publisher=W.G.J. Remmelink|page=136}}</ref><ref name="Remmelink1994">{{Cite book |last=Willem G. J. |first=Remmelink |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZVuAAAAMAAJ&q=The+general+term+for+Javanized+Chinese+was+peranakan,+which+nowadays+simply+means+locally+born,+but+at+the+time+also |title=The Chinese War and the Collapse of The Javanese State, 1725–1743 |year=1994 |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-90-6718-067-2 |page=136 |language=en}}</ref>

Peranakans were held in high regard by Malays. Some Malays in the past may have taken the word "Baba", referring to Chinese males, and put it into their name, when this used to be the case.<ref>[http://www.sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays.pdf Names and Surnames among the Malays] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105042/http://www.sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays.pdf |date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://freedownload.is/pdf/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays-1495749.html |title=Names and Surnames among the Malays PDF - Ebookily.net |publisher=Freedownload.is |date=13 October 2011 |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721063039/http://freedownload.is/pdf/names-and-surnames-among-the-malays-1495749.html |archive-date=21 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=14 December 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VmMVAAAACAAJ|title=Cultural Melaka|author=Donna Jeremiah|year=2002|publisher=IKSEP|isbn=978-983-2600-01-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627165339/http://books.google.com/books?id=VmMVAAAACAAJ|archive-date=27 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> This is not followed by the younger generation, and the current [[Chinese Malaysians]] do not have the same status or respect as Peranakans used to have.

In Penang, Thai women replaced Nias slave women and Batak slave women as wives of Chinese men after the 1830s when slavery was abolished.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasution |first1=Khoo Salma |year=2009 |title=Hokkien Chinese on the Phuket Mining From The Penang Connection and the Emergence Phuket Baba Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/3488733 |journal=JMBRAS |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=82}}</ref>

Many Peranakan in [[Java]], Indonesia are descendants of non-Muslim Chinese men who married abangan Javanese Muslim women. Most of the Chinese men did not convert to Islam since their Javanese wives did not ask them to, but a minority of Javanese women asked them to convert so a Chinese Muslim community made out of converts appeared among the Javanese. In the late half of the 19th century, Javanese Muslims became more adherent to Islamic rules due to going on hajj and more Arabs arriving in Java, ordering circumcision for converts. The Batavian Muslims in the 19th century completely absorbed the converted Chinese Muslims who originally had their own separate kapitan and community in the late 18th century. The remaining commoner non-Muslim Chinese Peranakans descended from Chinese men and Javanese Muslim women generally stopped marrying Javanese and the elite Peranakans stopped marrying Javanese completely and instead started only marrying fellow Chinese Peranakans in the 19th century, as they realized they might get absorbed by the Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skinner |first=G. William |title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese |date=2001 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824824466 |editor-last=Reid |editor-first=Anthony |edition=illustrated, reprint |series=Diaspora studies / Southeast Asian History |location= |page=75 |chapter=3 Creolized Chinese Societies in Southeast Asia |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC&dq=%22consented+to+nominal+conversion+in+old+age+to+please+their+wives%22&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wijaya |first=Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShYQAQAAIAAJ&q=%22In+this+period+,+conversion+to+Islam+for+the+ethnic+Chinese+was+likely+a+part+of+their+attempt+to+assimilate+themselves+into+Javanese+society+,+since+the+converted+ethnic+Chinese+were+usually+those+who+had+been+married+to+local+people%22 |title=Business, Family, and Religion: Public Theology in the Context of the Chinese-Indonesian Business Community |date=2002 |publisher=P. Lang |isbn=390676849X |location= |page=71 |author-link=}}</ref> DNA tests done on Chinese Peranakan in [[Singapore]] showed that those Peranakan who are mixed with Malays are mostly of paternal Han Chinese descent and of maternal Malay descent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Degang |last2=Li |first2=Peter Yiqing |last3=Pan |first3=Bangfen |last4=Tiang |first4=Zenia |last5=Dou |first5=Jinzhuang |last6=Williantarra |first6=Ivanna |last7=Pribowo |first7=Amadeus Yeremia |last8=Nurdiansyah |first8=Rizky |last9=Foo |first9=Roger S Y |last10=Wang |first10=Chaolong |date=October 2021 |title=Genetic Admixture in the Culturally Unique Peranakan Chinese Population in Southeast Asia |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/38/10/4463/6307269 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=4463–4474 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab187 |pmid=34152401 |pmc=8476152 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wu | first1=Degang | last2=Li | first2=Peter Yiqing | last3=Pan | first3=Bangfen | last4=Tiang | first4=Zenia | last5=Dou | first5=Jinzhuang | last6=Williantarra | first6=Ivanna | last7=Pribowo | first7=Amadeus Yeremia | last8=Nurdiansyah | first8=Rizky | last9=Foo | first9=Roger S Y | last10=Wang | first10=Chaolong | title=Genetic Admixture in the Culturally Unique Peranakan Chinese Population in Southeast Asia | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=38 | issue=10 | date=2021-06-21 | issn=1537-1719 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msab187 | pages=4463–4474 |pmid=34152401| pmc=8476152 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=August 6, 2021 |title=Genomic analysis of Peranakan Chinese reveals insight into ancestry |work=Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore |location= |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-08-genomic-analysis-peranakan-chinese-reveals.html |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Chee |first=Colin |date=30 June 2021 |title=THE SINGAPORE PERANAKAN GENOME PROJECT |url=https://www.peranakan.org.sg/2021/07/the-singapore-peranakan-genome-project/ |access-date= |website=The Peranakan Association Singapore |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.09.019 | title=Large-Scale Whole-Genome Sequencing of Three Diverse Asian Populations in Singapore | year=2019 | last1=Wu | first1=Degang | last2=Dou | first2=Jinzhuang | last3=Chai | first3=Xiaoran | last4=Bellis | first4=Claire | last5=Wilm | first5=Andreas | last6=Shih | first6=Chih Chuan | last7=Soon | first7=Wendy Wei Jia | last8=Bertin | first8=Nicolas | last9=Lin | first9=Clarabelle Bitong | last10=Khor | first10=Chiea Chuen | last11=Degiorgio | first11=Michael | last12=Cheng | first12=Shanshan | last13=Bao | first13=Li | last14=Karnani | first14=Neerja | last15=Hwang | first15=William Ying Khee | last16=Davila | first16=Sonia | last17=Tan | first17=Patrick | last18=Shabbir | first18=Asim | last19=Moh | first19=Angela | last20=Tan | first20=Eng-King | last21=Foo | first21=Jia Nee | last22=Goh | first22=Liuh Ling | last23=Leong | first23=Khai Pang | last24=Foo | first24=Roger S.Y. | last25=Lam | first25=Carolyn Su Ping | last26=Richards | first26=Arthur Mark | last27=Cheng | first27=Ching-Yu | last28=Aung | first28=Tin | last29=Wong | first29=Tien Yin | last30=Ng | first30=Huck Hui | journal=Cell | volume=179 | issue=3 | pages=736–749.e15 | pmid=31626772 | display-authors=1 | doi-access=free | hdl=10356/150428 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Peranakans in Malaysia and Singapore formed when non-Muslim Chinese men were able to marry Malay Muslim women a long time ago without converting to Islam. This is no longer the case in modern times where anyone who marries Malay women is required to convert to Islam.<ref name="Chua 2013">{{cite book |last=Chua |first=Beng Huat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxpqDwAAQBAJ&dq=non-muslim+men+malay+marry&pg=PT165 |title=Life Is Not Complete Without Shopping |date=2013 |publisher=Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. |isbn=978-9971697273 |location= |page= |author-link=}}</ref>

Peranakan, Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya are all names for the descendants of Han Chinese men and their Javanese, Sumatran and Malay wives. Han Chinese men did not allow their women to leave China, so they married local Muslim Javanese and other Southeast Asian women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kerlogue |first=Fiona G. Kerlogue |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&q=chinese+javanese+women |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1576077705 |editor-last=Ooi |editor-first=Keat Gin |edition=illustrated |location= |pages=198, 945, 1057 |quote=}}</ref> Dayak women were married by Han Chinese men who settled in Borneo as noted in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Andaya |first=Barbara Watson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5cBEAAAQBAJ&dq=first+waves+of+Chinese+males+reaching+Borneo+had+readily+taken+Dayak+women+as+sexual+partners&pg=PA146 |title=The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia |date=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0824864727 |edition=illustrated |series=UPCC book collections on Project MUSE |location= |page=146 |quote=Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia Barbara Watson Andaya ... composed his Hai-lu (A record of the seas), he noted that the first waves of Chinese males reaching Borneo had readily taken Dayak women as sexual partners.}}</ref> One Dayak man named Budi mentioned a Chinese man married Budi's sister and that he liked Chinese but he hated Madurese as he was talking about the massacres of Madurese settlers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parry |first=Richard Lloyd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8imo5gPToE8C&dq=sister+married+chinese+madurese&pg=PA55 |title=In the Time of Madness: Indonesia on the Edge of Chaos |date=2007 |publisher=Grove Press |isbn=978-0802142931 |edition=reprint |location= |page=55 |quote=He liked the Chinese , he told Budi . His sister was married to a Chinese . What about Madurese ? ' I asked . Budi chuckled anxiously as he translated the question , and there was more unconvincing giggling over the reply .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jack |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pjp23eeKs6wC&q=sister+married+chinese+madurese |title=What Young Men Do |date=1998 |publisher=Granta USA |isbn=0140141545 |series=Granta (Viking) |location= |page=122 |quote=He liked the Chinese , he told Budi . His sister was married to a Chinese . ' What about Madurese ? ' I asked . Budi chuckled anxiously as he translated the question , and there was more unconvincing giggling over the reply .}}</ref> Malay and Dayak ethnically cleansed Madurese settlers from their and in West Kalimantan starting in Sambas from December 1996 to February 2001 after the Sampit fights in December 2000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Steenbrink |first=Karel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N8zDwAAQBAJ&dq=dayak+sister+married+chinese+madurese&pg=PA434 |title=Catholics in Independent Indonesia: 1945-2010 |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004285422 |series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |location= |page=434}}</ref>

The Chinese are perhaps the most important people in Borneo. They have been traders and settlers on the coast from beyond historic times, and, as has just been stated, have for an equally long period mixed with the natives; so that some Dyaks—the Dusuns especially might almost be classed with them. They are not only traders who amass wealth merely to return with it to their own empire, but miners, agriculturists, and producers, without whom it would be difficult to develop the country. The Philippines, Singapore, and Borneo receive, perhaps, a larger number of these immigrants than any other countries. In Borneo they are scattered over the whole seaboard, carrying on a good deal of the river trade, and supplanting in many ways the less energetic Malay. But they are chiefly to be found in West Borneo, especially in the mining districts, as in Sambas and Montrado (Menteradu) in Dutch territory. Numbers are settled around Bau and Bidi, in Sarawak, and in the capital, Kuching. In North Borneo an irruption of some thousands occurred on the opening up of the country, and great numbers are employed on the tobacco plantations lately established. In Labuan, and in Pengaron in South Borneo, the coal mines were worked by Chinese, and they still act as sago-washers in the former island. Bound together by societies with stringent laws, their system of co-operation enables them to prosper where others would fail. In West Borneo they thus became so powerful as to defy the Dutch Government, who had great difficulty in subduing them.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9ZLAAAAYAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes |date=1894 |publisher=E. Stanford |editor-last=Guillemard |editor-first=Francis Henry Hill |volume=2 of Stanford's compendium of geography and travel. New issue. [Australasia, vol. II] |location= |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary , however , to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a conquering ... widely spoken Philippine tongue , Bisayan , but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that 1 region .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=John Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kq0tAAAAYAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Australasia: Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagos, by Guillemard |last2=Guillemard |first2=Francis Henry Hill |date=1908 |publisher=E. Stanford |edition=2 |series=Stanford's compendium of geography and travel |volume=2 of Australasia, Francis Henry Hill Guillemard |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary , however , to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a ... to another widely spoken Philippine tongue , Bisayan , but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that region . |last1=Gregory}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=Alfred Russel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmBPAQAAMAAJ&dq=pigafetta+malay+lingua+franca+philippines&pg=PA238 |title=Australasia: Malaysia and the Pacific archipelagoes, by F.H.H. Guillemard |date=1894 |publisher=E. Stanford |editor-last=Guillemard |editor-first=Francis Henry Hill |series=Stanford's compendium of geography and travel: New issue |volume=2 of Australasia, Francis Henry Hill Guillemard |location= |page=238 |quote=It is not necessary , however , to conclude that the Malay power was established by the single invasion of a ... to another widely spoken Philippine tongue , Bisayan , but Malay is used by most as the lingua franca of that region .}}</ref> In 1912, Chinese engaged in mass violent riots against Dutch colonial rule in Surabaya and Batavia in the Dutch East Indies.<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=2 Feb 2022 |title=Bloody Riots During The 1912 Chinese New Year In The Archipelago Of The Dutch East Indies |url=https://voi.id/en/memori/130523/bloody-riots-during-the-1912-chinese-new-year-in-the-archipelago-of-the-dutch-east-indies |access-date= |website= |publisher= |quote=}}</ref>

Among the Straits Chinese (Peranakan) descendants in [[Sulu]], the Philippines is Abdusakur Tan II, the governor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Antolihao |first1=Lou |title=Singapore Ethnic Mosaic, The: Many Cultures, One People |last2=Mesenas |first2=Clement |date=2017 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9813234758 |editor1-last=Mathew |editor1-first=Mathews |page=409 |chapter=Chapter 13 Filipino Community and Culture in Singapore |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4RIDwAAQBAJ&dq=abdusakur+straits+chinese+tan&pg=PA409}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=See |first=T. Ang |title=Migration, Indigenization And Interaction: Chinese Overseas And Globalization |date=2011 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9814458269 |editor-last=Suryadinata |editor-first=Leo |location= |page=237 |chapter=Part 3 South and Southeast Asia 3. Localization of the Chinese in the Philippines |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA-7CgAAQBAJ&dq=abdusakur+straits+chinese+tan&pg=PA237}}</ref>

Many Straits Chinese (Peranakans) migrated from Singapore to Jolo, Sulu and Mindanao to live and trade among the Moro Muslims like the Tausug people and Maguindanaons and sell weapons, rifles, cannon and opium to them in exchange for gutta-percha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA128 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |pages=128–131}}</ref> Tausug and Chinese married each other and Chinese also converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA127 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |page=127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YNuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22had+intermarried+with+Taosug+commoners+or+slaves+and+accepted+Islam%22 |title=Philippine Studies, Volumes 25-26 |date=1977 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila |others=Contributors Jesuits. Philippine Province, Ateneo de Manila University |location= |page=69 |quote=Often , these Chinese had intermarried with Taosug commoners or slaves and accepted Islam to improve their status . In this period it was not at all unusual for powerful Taosug to provide Chinese with the wherewithal to trade – the ...}}</ref> Moros carried out suicide juramentado attacks against the Japanese.<ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4BEAAAQBAJ&dq=suicide+commandos+revived+japanese&pg=PA125 |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824864521 |edition=illustrated |location= |page=125 |quote=Retaliation against local populations for guerrilla actions led to a revival of the suicide commando (juramentado), who attackedsmall groups of Japanese anddied in the fighting.Also, there were guerrilla units dominated by Muslim ...}}</ref> Moro juramentados used opium in their attacks against US soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLgPAAAAIAAJ&q=%22of+the+same+gold+cup+with+him+.+Death+%22 |title=The World's Work, Volume 47 |date=1924 |publisher=Doubleday, Page & Company |others=Contributors Walter Hines Page, Arthur Wilson Page |location= |page=183 |quote=... he had a repu- of the same gold cup with him . Death was tation for power just short of the Almighty . meat and drink , the Juramentados went to it It was said that in the days of Arolas , Sulu like you and I would go to dinner .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6ZQAQAAMAAJ&q=%22of+the+same+gold+cup+with+him+.+Death+%22 |title=Mr. Archer, U. S. A.: As Told to R. H. Platt, Jr |last2=Platt |first2=Rutherford Hayes |date=1924 |publisher=Doubleday, Page |location= |page=178 |quote=they were killed by a Christian they sat on the right hand of Mahomet and drank out of the same gold cup with him . Death was meat and drink ; the Juramentados went to it like you and I would go to dinner . |author-link=}}</ref> American military officers Charles Wilkes saw Sulu Moro Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand (spelling error of Jamalul Kiram) and his sons smoke opium and he had bloodshot eyes because of it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zarco |first1=Ricardo M. |date=1995 |title=A Short History of Narcotic Drug Addiction in the Philippines, 1521-1959 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23898530 |journal=Philippine Sociological Review |volume=43 |issue=1/4 |pages=1–15 |doi= |jstor=23898530 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-01-21 |title=Early Filipino warriors used drugs to enhance their killing capabilities (or did they?) |url=https://filipiknow.net/early-filipino-warriors-used-drugs-to-enhance-their-killing-capabilities/ |access-date= |website=FilipiKnow – The Most Trusted Online Learning Site for Filipinos |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rahmat |first=Hadijah Bte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZwPEAAAQBAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=RA1-PA10 |title=Abdullah Bin Abdul Kadir Munshi (In 2 Volumes) |date=2020 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-9811205811 |location= |page=10 |quote=Wilkes met the Sultan of Sulu, Sultan Mohammad Damaliel Kisand, a Muslim king who ... cutlery and crockery, opium, and “arms of all kinds” (Wilkes, 1842). |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=1842 - Naval History and Heritage Command |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/our-collections/art/exhibits/exploration-and-technology/alfred-agate-collection/1842.html |access-date= |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqNbAAAAQAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA277 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition: During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 2 |date=1852 |publisher=Ingram, Cooke |isbn= |series=National illustrated library |volume=1-5 of United States Exploring Expedition |location= |page=277 |quote=... he was under the effects of opium , of which they all smoke large quantities . ... the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand , but said that he might feel ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1xHAAAAYAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 5 |date=1845 |publisher=Lea and Blanchard |isbn= |series=United States. Navy Dept |location= |page=337 |quote=... gratitude or obligation for the sight of His Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand , but said that he might feel grateful ... influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvlWAAAAcAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA620 |title=Voyage round the World, etc |date=1851 |publisher=G. P. Putnam |isbn= |location= |page=620 |quote=... the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand , but said that he might feel grateful to me if he ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Chq7EQhwCD0C&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=United States Exploring Expedition: During the Year 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, Volume 5 |date=1845 |publisher=C. Sherman |others=Contributor United States. Congress |isbn= |location= |page=337 |quote=... Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand , but said that he might feel grateful to me if ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1ZHAAAAYAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA337 |title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition ... 1838-1842, Volume 5 |date=1851 |publisher=Putnam |isbn= |location= |page=337 |quote=... of His Majesty the Sultan Mohammed Damaliel Kisand , but said that he might feel grateful ... as though he was constantly under the influence of opium . |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i44NAQAAMAAJ&dq=damaliel+kisand+opium&pg=PA359 |title=Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, Volume 4 |date=1931 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |isbn= |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=David Hunter |series=Department of State publication |location= |page=359 |quote=... was under the effects of opium , of which they all smoke large quantities . ... “ Wilkes ' Damaliel Kisand must be a writer's error for JamâlulKirâm . |number=Dept. of state. Publication no. 175, 453, 645, 1017}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Datu Uto received Spencer and Enfield rifles from Straits Chinese (Peranakan) merchants.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&dq=spencer+enfield+sulu+chinese+taosug&pg=PA129 |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971693862 |location= |page=129 |quote=4 Once the Spanish began the calculated destruction of Sulu shipping , Chinese merchants freighted their goods from ... the Taosug and Chinese of Maimbung ( the de facto capital of the Sultanate ) but now the Enfield and Spencer rifles ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YNuAAAAMAAJ&q=spencer+enfield+sulu+chinese+taosug |title=Philippine Studies, Volumes 25-26 |date=1977 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila |others=Jesuits. Philippine Province, Ateneo de Manila University |isbn= |location= |page=72 |quote=... exports went to Sulu . After 1876 Labuan still found its principal customers in the Taosug and Chinese of Maimbung ( the de facto capital of the Sultanate ) but now the Enfield and Spencer rifles , assorted pistols , and gunpowder ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schult |first=Volker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyiNDRUOm_EC&dq=spencer+Gewehre+sulu&pg=PA64 |title=Wunsch und Wirklichkeit: deutsch-philippinische Beziehungen im Kontext globaler Verflechtungen 1860-1945 |date=2008 |publisher=Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH |isbn=978-3832518981 |volume=8 of Berliner Südostasien-Studien/Berlin studies on South East Asia |location= |page=64 |issn=1619-7593 |quote=Zwischen 1870 und 1886 verloren die Taosug ihre Rolle als Umschlaghändler im Sulu-Archipel Die Gründe lagen in der spanischen ... Von dort transportierten die Chinesen Enfield und Spencer Gewehre weiter zu den Maginda- nao von Buayan, ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLJBAQAAMAAJ&dq=waffen+enfield+sulu&pg=PA53 |title=Globus, Volume 46 |date=1884 |publisher=Bibliographischen Institut |isbn= |location= |page=53 |quote=Die Hinrichtung ist auf Sulu ein Att scheußsind , nachzuahmen , daß sie bei der Billigkeit ihrer Erzeug- licher Barbarei ... Die Chinesen importiren überdies Waffen , schen Stadt zurück , um die nöthigen Vorbereitungen zur Munition ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Lantaka swivel bronze cannon were sold by Chinese to the Moros who were fighting the Americans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=James R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgWnN4hyjoQC&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA45 |title=The Moro War: How America Battled a Muslim Insurgency in the Philippine Jungle, 1902-1913 |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1608193653 |location= |page=45 |quote=Having fought one pitched battle at Bayan against the Moros, the Americans had acquired a good idea of their ... the Moros obtained in trade with the Chinese or manufactured themselves small-caliber bronze swivel guns called lantakas. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Edgerton |first=Ronald K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdPXDwAAQBAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PT289 |title=American Datu: John J. Pershing and Counterinsurgency Warfare in the Muslim Philippines, 1899-1913 |date=2020 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0813178967 |edition=illustrated |series=Battles and Campaigns |location= |page= |quote=... consisting of felled trees adat customary law agama kinship-based community among Maranao Moros agung brass gong amuk ... panglima among Tausug Moros laksamana lantaka small, muzzle-loaded brass cannon usually of Chinese manufacture ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ScgAQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=RA5-PA17 |title=Journal, Volumes 6-7 |date=1926 |publisher= |isbn= |location= |page=17 |quote=Smoking Lantakas : Moros Mad in Lanao lic works have been established , that in these things themselves lie very largely the solution of the problem of government . Even the Malanao desires the aid of capital and of Americans , but a ... |author-link=}}</ref> A novel was written about this.<ref>{{cite book |last=Denson |first=Gene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Tz9CAAAQBAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PT288 |title=Mindanao: A Novel of the Philippine Insurrection |date=2015 |publisher=X libris US |isbn=978-1503540972 |location= |page= |quote=... the Moro riflemen and embrasures were constructed for the Moro cannon that included several crude Chinese lantakas. ... of a bullet and feeling dreadfully vulnerable, Jaime crouched low as the American 3.6 inch mortars opened fire. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Malcolm |first=George Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtoBAAAAMAAJ&q=lantaka+moro+chinese+american |title=The Commonwealth of the Philippines |date=1936 |publisher=D. Appleton-Century Company, incorporated |others=Contributors Philippines, Philippines islands |isbn= |series=Philippine law collection World constitutions illustratedn |location= |page=47 |quote=Friend of Moros , Chinese , Spaniards , Americans , and Filipinos . ... The wealthiest Moro of his day . ... ran from an engraved lantaka ( THE MOROS AND PAGANS 47 Datu Piang of a hundred or more wives and of a hundred or more children. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurley |first=Vic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgacaW_qEOQC&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA303 |title=Swish of the Kris, the Story of the Moros, Authorized and Enhanced Edition |date=2010 |publisher=Cerberus Books |isbn=978-0615382425 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Christopher L. |edition=illustrated, reprint |location= |page=303 |quote=Note: The author lists by name a great number of individuals - Spaniards, Moros, and Americans - who were instrumental during both the Spanish occupation and the subsequent American occupation of Philippine Moro territories. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=University of the Philippines. Social Science Research Center |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvcZAAAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA169 |title=An Annotated Bibliography of Philippine Social Sciences: Economics, by A.G. Hufana and R.V. Díaz |date=1956 |publisher= |others=Alejandrino G. Hufana, Rony V. Díaz, University of the Philippines. Institute of Asian Studies |isbn= |volume=1 of An Annotated Bibliography of Philippine Social Sciences, Cecilio Lopez |location= |page=169 |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Orosa |first=Sixto Y. |title=The Philippine Review: (Revista Filipina) ; a Monthly Magazine in English and Spanish, Volume 4 |date=1919 |publisher= |isbn= |editor-last=Nieva |editor-first=Gregorio |location= |page=820 |chapter=The Flag Day in Jolo |quote=Moros not to exhibit the Filipino flag , but A fourth , representing Liberty , standtheir un - American efforts in no ... in an attitude of protecting ened or dulled the general enthusiasm . the three , was unfurling the American flag . |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nb87AQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=PA820}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlI-AQAAMAAJ&dq=lantaka+moro+chinese+american&pg=RA6-PA21 |title=Army-Navy-Air Force Register and Defense Times, Volume 44 |date=1908 |publisher= |isbn= |location= |page=21 |quote=No other milk approaches it China , the latter a colony of France . in actual food value or in any of the qualition ... In 1599 large numbers of Moro St. , New York City , If your Druggist THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LANTAKA OF THE pirates ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}}

Balinese women, Bugis women and other native women in Indonesia who married Han Chinese men were buried according to Chinese custom with Chinese characters on their gravestones instead of being cremated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salmon |first1=Claudine |date=2016 |title=Ancient Chinese Cemeteries of Indonesia as Vanishing Landmarks of the Past (17th-20th c.) Anciens cimetières d'Indonésie comme jalons d'un passé en voie de disparition (xviie-xxe s.) |journal=Chinese Deathscapes in Insulindia |volume=92 |issue= |pages=23–61 |doi=10.4000/archipel.282 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Straits Chinese, Baba Nyonya or Peranakan are descended from Malay women and Chinese men.<ref>{{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Timothy P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mR2_TTWL4C&dq=%22people+considered+them+as+offspring%22&pg=PA51 |title=Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia: Identity, Representation and Citizenship |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135931223 |edition=illustrated |page=51}}</ref>