Editing Peer pressure (section)

==== Alcohol use ====

Though the impact of peer influence in adolescence has been well established, it was unclear at what age this effect begins to diminish. It is accepted that such peer pressure to use alcohol or illicit substances is less likely to exist in elementary school and very young adolescents given the limited access and exposure. Using the Resistance to Peer Influence Scale, Sumter and colleagues found that resistance to peer pressure grew as age increased in a large study of 10- to 18-year-olds.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Bokhorst|first2=Caroline L.|last3=Steinberg|first3=Laurence|last4=Westenberg|first4=P. Michiel|date=August 2009|title=The developmental pattern of resistance to peer influence in adolescence: Will the teenager ever be able to resist?|journal=Journal of Adolescence|volume=32|issue=4|pages=1009–1021|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.08.010|pmid=18992936|last1=Sumter|first1=Sindy R.|author-link3=Laurence Steinberg}}</ref> This study also found that girls were generally more resistant to peer influence than boys, particularly at mid-adolescence (i.e. ages 13–15). The higher vulnerability to peer pressure for teenage boys makes sense given the higher rates of substance use in male teens.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Merikangas|first1=Kathleen Ries|author-link=Kathleen Merikangas|last2=He|first2=Jian-ping|last3=Burstein|first3=Marcy|last4=Swanson|first4=Sonja A.|last5=Avenevoli|first5=Shelli|author5-link=Shelli Avenevoli|last6=Cui|first6=Lihong|last7=Benjet|first7=Corina|last8=Georgiades|first8=Katholiki|last9=Swendsen|first9=Joel|date=October 2010|title=Lifetime Prevalence of Mental Disorders in U.S. Adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A)|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=49|issue=10|pages=980–989|doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017|pmc=2946114|pmid=20855043}}</ref> For girls, increased and positive parental behaviors (e.g. parental social support, consistent discipline) have been shown to be an important contributor to the ability to resist peer pressure to use substances.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Chassin|first2=Laurie|date=March 2000|title=Peer Influence on Adolescent Alcohol Use: The Moderating Role of Parental Support and Discipline|journal=Applied Developmental Science|volume=4|issue=2|pages=80–88|doi=10.1207/S1532480XADS0402_3|last1=Marshal|first1=Michael P.|s2cid=143466975}}</ref>

It is believed that peer pressure relating to alcohol use in college is caused by a variety of factors including: Modeling, social norms, and being offered alcohol. Offering alcohol can be seen as a kind gesture, but in some cases a forceful one. Students may feel like their social position could become compromised if they don't follow the actions of their fellow peers. This correlates to modeling, a term used to describe the action of copying/imitating the actions of your peers to fit in. This usually occurs when students give into peer pressure to seem more attractive to the perceived majority. Lastly, you have common, socially acceptable norms that frequently occur in college settings such as substance abuse and drinking. One of the most commonly used excuses among students to which why they drink is because "everyone does it". Upon entering college, it's common to see students begin to increase their alcohol intake, especially for those who do not live at home. Because they have shifted from being influenced by their parents to being influenced by their college peers, it's common to see students reflect their peers, most likely due to an increase of modeling to fit in to social settings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Borsari|first1=Brian|last2=Carey|first2=Kate|title=Peer influences on college drinking: A review of the research|journal=Journal of Substance Abuse|date=December 2001|volume=13|issue=4|pages=391–424|doi=10.1016/s0899-3289(01)00098-0|pmid=11775073|citeseerx=10.1.1.602.7429}}</ref>

'''Other substances'''

Besides the impacts of peer pressure on adolescent alcohol and tobacco use, peer pressure plays a role in the use of other substances, such as marijuana and hard drugs. One contributor to peer pressure with marijuana is legalization efforts; the legalization of recreational marijuana may increase adolescent access and decrease stigma, increasing the likelihood of peer exposure and peer pressure.<ref name=":10" /> With legalization comes other challenges, such as deregulation and a lack of control of substances like marijuana and non-medical opioids when it comes to safety concerns. On an international scale, contaminants such as fentanyl are seeping into deregulated opioid markets, which dramatically decreases safety and increases risks for opioid toxicity and death.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Akbar |first1=Sadia |last2=Iacono |first2=Anita |last3=Yang |first3=Joanna |last4=Antoniou |first4=Tony |last5=Juurlink |first5=David |last6=Sheikh |first6=Hasan |last7=Kurdyak |first7=Paul |last8=Wu |first8=Fangyun |last9=Cheng |first9=Clare |last10=Leece |first10=Pamela |last11=Kolla |first11=Gillian |last12=Emblem |first12=Jennifer |last13=Shearer |first13=Dana |last14=Gomes |first14=Tara |date=2024-07-01 |title=Characteristics of Opioid Toxicity Deaths Among Adolescents and Young Adults in Ontario Prior To and During the COVID-19 Pandemic |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X24001149 |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |language=English |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.02.024 |issn=1054-139X |pmid=38597841 |doi-access=free |access-date=December 1, 2024 |archive-date=August 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812174501/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054139X24001149 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Peer pressure and social group selection can create a positive feedback loop with marijuana abuse as well as other substances. Through homophily, the sociological concept in which people connect more with others they are similar to, pro-substance use adolescents and adults self-select with others who share their habits.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last1=McPherson |first1=Miller |last2=Smith-Lovin |first2=Lynn |last3=Cook |first3=James M. |date=2001 |title=Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2678628 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=27 |pages=415–444 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415 |jstor=2678628 |issn=0360-0572 |access-date=December 1, 2024 |archive-date=December 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204055306/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2678628 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=Nancy P. |last2=DiGuiseppi |first2=Graham T. |last3=Tesdahl |first3=Eric A. |last4=Meisel |first4=Matthew K. |date=January 2022 |title=Peer selection and influence for marijuana use in a complete network of first-year college students |journal=Addictive Behaviors |language=en |volume=124 |pages=107087 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107087 |pmc=8785655 |pmid=34464915}}</ref> Similar to nicotine, comfort and familiarity with people and places of first initiation are predictors for whether individuals will use substances.<ref name=":11" /> Opioid use is closely linked to peer pressure and comfort, as well as a number of other risk factors which connect with other substance use trends. Opioid use is strongly correlated with tobacco use, and "experimentation," or trying several different substances during adolescence, is closely tied to long-term abuse.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Kelley-Quon |first1=Lorraine I. |last2=Cho |first2=Junhan |last3=Barrington-Trimis |first3=Jessica |last4=Kipke |first4=Michele D. |last5=Clapp |first5=John D. |last6=Krueger |first6=Evan A. |last7=Leventhal |first7=Adam M. |date=2022-07-01 |title=Longitudinal trajectories of prescription opioid misuse in adolescents |journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence |volume=236 |pages=109470 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109470 |issn=1879-0046 |pmid=35504242|pmc=10027390 }}</ref> Additionally, delinquent behaviors and peer selection connect closely with opioid use. Opioid use and distribution outside of prescriptions is commonly associated with crime, and if peer groups contain individuals who commit these crimes, the risk of group abuse increases.<ref name=":15" />