Editing Ottoman Empire (section)

==== Military defeats ====
Aside from the loss of the [[Banat]] and the temporary loss of [[History of Belgrade|Belgrade]] (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the [[Danube]] and [[Sava]] remained stable during the eighteenth century. [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|Russian expansion]], however, presented a large and growing threat.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Accordingly, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Poltava]] of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721).{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the [[Pruth River Campaign]] of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=372}}

[[File:1720 Huchtenburg Eroberungs Belgrads 1717 anagoria.JPG|thumb|Austrian troops led by [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] capture [[Belgrade]] in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)]]. With the 1739 [[Treaty of Belgrade]], the Ottoman Empire regained northern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]].]]

After the [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and [[Oltenia|"Little Walachia" (Oltenia)]] to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=376}} The [[Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War]] (1735–1739), which was ended by the [[Treaty of Belgrade]] in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern [[Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]]; but the Empire lost the port of [[Azov]], north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of [[Prussia]].{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=392}}

[[Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire#Education|Educational and technological reforms]] came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the [[Istanbul Technical University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Technical University}}</ref> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of [[theodicy]].<ref name="books.google_a">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=97 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="books.google_a"/> In 1726, [[Ibrahim Muteferrika]] convinced the Grand Vizier [[Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha]], the [[Grand Mufti]], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and religious leaders).<ref name="katip celebi">{{Cite web |date=5 May 2009 |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Utrecht University Library}}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<ref name="katip celebi"/><ref name="watson">{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}</ref>

In North Africa, Spain [[Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)|conquered Oran]] from the autonomous [[Deylik of Algiers]]. The [[Beylik of Oran|Bey of Oran]] received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture [[Oran]]; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=559}}</ref> In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.

[[File:January Suchodolski - Ochakiv siege.jpg|thumb|Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the [[Siege of Ochakov (1788)|Siege of Ochakov]] in 1788]]

In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian [[Haidamaka]]s, pursuing Polish confederates, entered [[Balta, Ukraine|Balta]], an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]]. The [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=405}} By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of [[Peter the Great]] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="books.google_a"/>

[[File:Ottoman Sultan Selim III (1789).jpg|thumb|[[Selim III]] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, [[Topkapı Palace]]. Painting by [[Konstantin Kapıdağlı]].]]

[[Selim III]] (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to [[Ottoman military reform efforts|modernise the army]], but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the [[Janissary]] corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary [[Janissary revolts|revolted]]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic [[Mahmud II]], who [[Auspicious Incident|eliminated the Janissary corps]] in 1826.
[[File:Genève et Grèce - Bataille de l'Acropole par JGC Perlberg.jpg|thumb|The siege of the Acropolis in 1826–1827 during the [[Greek War of Independence]]]]
The [[Serbian revolution]] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|national awakening]] in the [[Balkans]] during the [[Eastern Question]]. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] of [[Kavala]], the ''[[wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet of Egypt]], tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the [[Emirate of Diriyah]] in 1818. The [[suzerainty]] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own [[Obrenović dynasty|dynasty]] was acknowledged ''[[de jure]]'' in 1830.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |archive-date=5 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Berend2003">{{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Tibor Iván |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93209-8 |page=127 |author-link=Iván T. Berend |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1821, the [[Ottoman Greece|Greeks]] [[Greek War of Independence|declared war]] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the [[Peloponnese]], which, along with the northern part of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the [[Deylik of Algiers]]. [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|The campaign]] took 21 days, and resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831">De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). ''Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique''. Dentu. p. 35.</ref> and about 2,600 French ones.<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |title=Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie |date=1831 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kateb |first=Kamel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11 |title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations |date=2001 |publisher=INED |isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9 |language=fr}}</ref> By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyot |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |title=Lettres sur la politique coloniale |date=1885 |publisher=C. Reinwald |isbn=9798862369458 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1831, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] revolted against Sultan [[Mahmud II]] due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of [[Syria (region)|Greater Syria]] and [[Crete]], which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek revolt]] (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal [[London Protocol (1830)|independence of Greece]] in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. Thus began the first [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)]], during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into [[Anatolia]], reaching the city of [[Kütahya]] within {{cvt|200|mi|km|order=flip}} of the capital, Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim">{{cite book |last=Karsh |first=Effraim |title=Islamic Imperialism A History |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006}}</ref>{{rp|95}} In desperation, Sultan [[Mahmud II]] appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] to send an expeditionary force to assist him.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} In return for signing the [[Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi]], the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Under the terms of the [[Convention of Kütahya]], signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the ''[[wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the ''[[vilayet]]s'' (provinces) of [[Crete]], [[Aleppo]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Damascus]] and [[Sidon]] (the latter four comprising modern [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]]), and given the right to collect taxes in [[Adana]].<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan [[Mahmud II]] could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|95–96}}

In 1839, the [[Sublime Porte]] attempted to take back what it lost to the ''[[de facto]]'' autonomous, but ''[[de jure]]'' still Ottoman [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet of Egypt]], but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the [[Oriental Crisis of 1840]]. Muhammad Ali had close relations with [[July Monarchy|France]], and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire [[Levant]] into the French sphere of influence.<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}} As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Konya {{!}} Summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |title=All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |date=2002 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-696-8 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[British Empire]] and [[Austrian Empire]] provided military assistance, and the second [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)]] ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over [[Egypt Eyalet]] and the [[Levant]].<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}}

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "[[sick man of Europe]]". Three suzerain states – the [[Principality of Serbia]], [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s.