Editing Ostracism (section)

==Modern usage==
Ostracism is evident in several animal species,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|10}} as well as in modern human interactions. The social psychologist [[Kipling Williams]] defines ostracism as "any act or acts of ignoring and excluding of an individual or groups by an individual or a group" without necessarily involving "acts of [[Verbal abuse|verbal]] or [[Physical abuse|physical]] abuse".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Kipling D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47443948|title=Ostracism : the power of silence|publisher=Guilford Press|year=2002|isbn=1-57230-689-0|location=New York|pages=|oclc=47443948}}</ref>

Williams suggests that the most common form of ostracism is [[silent treatment]],<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|2|quote=The silent treatment is one of many forms of ostracism, but it is the one that most of us have experienced.}} wherein refusing to communicate with a person effectively ignores and excludes them.<ref>Williams, K. (2001).''Ostracism: The Power of Silence''. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 2–18. See also Sherratt, S. (2021). Workplace ostracism in academia. ''Australian Universities Review'', 63(2):35–43. </ref>

=== Computer networks ===
Ostracism in the context of [[computer network]]s (such as the [[Internet]]) is termed "cyberostracism". In [[email]] communication, in particular, it is relatively easy to engage in silent treatment, in the form of "unanswered emails"<ref>Douglas, K. 2008. 'Antisocial Communication on Electronic Mail and the Internet'. In: A. Konjin, M. Tanis, S. Utz, and S Barnes (eds.) ''Mediated Interpersonal Communication''. (200–214). New York: Routledge. p. 203.</ref> or "ignored emails".<ref>Wesselmann, E. and Williams, K. 2013. 'Ostracism and Stages of Coping'. In: C. Dewall (ed.) ''Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion''. (20–30). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 21.</ref> Being ostracised on [[social media]] is seen to be threatening to the fundamental human needs of [[Belonging needs|belonging]], [[self-esteem]], [[Locus of control|control]] and [[Meaning of life|meaningful]] existence.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 August 2017|title=Social media ostracism: The effects of being excluded online|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563217302091|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|language=en|volume=73|pages=385–393|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.052|issn=0747-5632|last1=Schneider|first1=Frank M.|last2=Zwillich|first2=Britta|last3=Bindl|first3=Melanie J.|last4=Hopp|first4=Frederic R.|last5=Reich|first5=Sabine|last6=Vorderer|first6=Peter}}</ref> Cyber-[[Social rejection|rejection]] (receiving "dislikes") caused more threat to the need of belonging and self-esteem, and lead to [[social withdrawal]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Lutz|first1=Sarah|last2=Schneider|first2=Frank M.|date=11 August 2020|title=Is receiving Dislikes in social media still better than being ignored? The effects of ostracism and rejection on need threat and coping responses online|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2020.1799409|journal=Media Psychology|volume=24|issue=6|pages=741–765|doi=10.1080/15213269.2020.1799409|s2cid=225424569|issn=1521-3269}}</ref> Cyber-ostracism (being ignored or receiving fewer "likes")<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 April 2020|title=Being liked or not being liked: A study on social-media exclusion in a preadolescent population|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140197120300373|journal=Journal of Adolescence|language=en|volume=80|pages=173–181|doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.02.010|issn=0140-1971|last1=Timeo|first1=Susanna|last2=Riva|first2=Paolo|last3=Paladino|first3=Maria Paola|pmid=32151853|s2cid=212650441}}</ref> conversely lead to more [[prosocial behavior]].<ref name=":1" /> Ostracism is thought to be associated with [[Problematic social media use|social media disorder]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ergun|first1=Gul|last2=Alkan|first2=Ali|date=June 2020|title=The Social Media Disorder and Ostracism in Adolescents: (OSTRACA- SM Study)|journal=The Eurasian Journal of Medicine|volume=52|issue=2|pages=139–144|doi=10.5152/eurasianjmed.2020.19076|issn=1308-8734|pmc=7311140|pmid=32612421}}</ref>

=== Reactions ===
Williams and his colleagues have charted responses to ostracism in some five thousand cases, and found two distinctive patterns of response. The first is increased [[Conformity|group-conformity]], in a quest for re-admittance; the second is to become more provocative and hostile to the group, [[Attention seeking|seeking attention]] rather than acceptance.<ref>J. Rose, ''The Literary Churchill'' (Yale 2015) p. 233</ref>{{Better source needed|date=May 2021}}

=== Age ===
Older adults report experiencing ostracism less frequently, with a particular dip being around the age of [[retirement]]. Regardless of age, ostracism is strongly associated with negative emotions, reduced life satisfaction and dysfunctional social behaviour.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaakobi |first=Erez |date=11 May 2022 |title=Recovery From Ostracism Distress: The Role of Attribution |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899564 |doi-access=free |pmid=35645924 |pmc=9131002 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rudert|first1=Selma C.|last2=Janke|first2=Stefan|last3=Greifeneder|first3=Rainer|date=October 2020|title=The experience of ostracism over the adult life span.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dev0001096|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=56|issue=10|pages=1999–2012|doi=10.1037/dev0001096|pmid=32686947|s2cid=220655977|issn=1939-0599}}</ref>

===Whistleblowing===
Research suggests that ostracism is a common retaliatory strategy used by organizations in response to [[whistleblowing]]. Kipling Williams, in a survey on US whistleblowers, found that all respondents reported post-whistleblowing ostracism.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|194–195}} Alexander Brown similarly found that post-whistleblowing ostracism is a common response, and indeed describes ostracism as form of "[[wiktionary:covert|covert]]" reprisal, as it is normally so difficult to identify and investigate.<ref>Brown, A. J. (ed) 2008. Whistling While They Work. Canberra: ANU Press. p. 129.</ref>

===Qahr and ashti===
Qahr and ashti is a culture-specific Iranian form of personal shunning, most frequently of another family member in [[Iran]].<ref name="Limbert 2016 37">{{cite book|last=Limbert|first=John W.|title=Iran: At War With History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXS3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-22012-1|page=37}}</ref> While modern Western concepts of ostracism are based upon enforcing conformity within a societally-recognized group, qahr is a private (batini), family-orientated affair of conflict or display of anger<ref>{{cite book|last=Brody|first=Leslie|title=Gender, Emotion, and the Family|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSnJ070I7QgC&pg=PA83|year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02882-1|page=83}}</ref> that is never disclosed to the public at large, as to do so would be a breach of social etiquette.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commisceo-global.com/country-guides/iran-guide|title=Iran – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette|website=commisceo-global.com|access-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519233446/http://www.commisceo-global.com/country-guides/iran-guide|archive-date=19 May 2017}}</ref>

''Qahr'' is avoidance of a lower-ranking family member who has committed a perceived insult. It is one of several ritualised social customs of Iranian culture.<ref name="Limbert 2016 37"/>

''Gozasht'' means 'tolerance, understanding and a desire or willingness to forgive'<ref name="Iran ppg 37-38">''Iran: At War with History'', by John Limbert, 1987 pp. 37–38</ref> and is an essential component of Qahr and Ashti<ref name="Iran ppg 37-38"/> for the psychological needs of [[closure (psychology)|closure]] and [[Need for cognition|cognition]], as well as a culturally accepted source for practicing necessary religious requirements of ''tawbah'' ''(repentance, see Koran 2:222)''<ref>Repentance http://sunnahonline.com/library/purification-of-the-soul/175-repentance</ref> and ''du'a'' (supplication).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://islam.ru/en/content/story/what-dua|title=What is Dua? |website=islam.ru|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>