Editing Oligarchy (section)

== By country ==
[[Jeffrey A. Winters]] and [[Benjamin I. Page]] have described Colombia, Indonesia, Russia, Singapore and the United States as oligarchies.<ref name="winters2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Winters |first1=Jeffrey |authorlink1=Jeffrey A. Winters |last2=Page |first2=Benjamin |authorlink2=Benjamin Page |publication-date=December 2009 |title=Oligarchy in the United States? |journal=Perspectives on Politics |year=2009 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=731–751 |doi=10.1017/S1537592709991770 |s2cid=144432999 |access-date=2022-03-12 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231898807 |quote=the concept of oligarchy can be fruitfully applied not only to places like Singapore, Colombia, Russia, and Indonesia.}}</ref>

=== The Philippines ===
{{Main|Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986)}}

During the [[presidency of Ferdinand Marcos]] from 1965 to 1986, several monopolies arose in the Philippines, primarily linked to the [[Marcos family]] and their close associates. Analysts have described this period, and even subsequent decades, as an era of oligarchy in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hutchcroft |first=Paul D. |date=April 1991 |title=Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State the Politics of Patrimonial Plunder |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/oligarchs-and-cronies-in-the-philippine-state-the-politics-of-patrimonial-plunder/ED0D256E6AA60C7FE702B4068CCAE06D |journal=World Politics |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=414–450 |doi=10.2307/2010401 |jstor=2010401 |s2cid=154855272 |issn=1086-3338}}</ref><ref>{{Cite SSRN |last=Mendoza |first=Ronald U. |last2=Bulaong |first2=Oscar Jr. |last3=Mendoza |first3=Gabrielle Ann S. |date=1 February 2022 |title=Cronyism, Oligarchy and Governance in the Philippines: 1970s vs 2020s |ssrn=4032259 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Quimpo |first=Nathan Gilbert |title=Can the Philippines' wild oligarchy be tamed? |date=2015 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315674735-30/philippines-wild-oligarchy-tamed-nathan-gilbert-quimpo |work=Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Democratization |pages=347–362 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315674735-30 |isbn=978-1-315-67473-5 |access-date=2022-05-15}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Explainer: The oligarchy in the Philippines is more than just one family or firm |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/07/19/2028001/explainer-oligarchy-more-just-one-family-or-firm |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=Philstar.com}}</ref>

President [[Rodrigo Duterte]], elected in 2016, promised to dismantle the oligarchy during his presidency.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Ruth Abbey Gita-Carlos |title=Duterte takes pride in dismantling oligarchy |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1134133 |access-date=2022-05-15 |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> However, corporate oligarchy persisted throughout his tenure. While Duterte criticized prominent tycoons such as the [[Zobel de Ayala family|Ayalas]] and [[Manny Pangilinan]], corporate figures allied with Duterte, including [[Dennis Uy]] of [[Udenna Corporation]], benefitted during his administration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/business/2022/6/29/Businesses-under-Duterte-administration-Who-gained-got-hurt.html |title=Businesses under Duterte administration: Who gained, who got hurt? |last=Esmael |first=Lisbet |date=June 29, 2022 |website=CNN Philippines |access-date=Sep 19, 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928210716/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/business/2022/6/29/Businesses-under-Duterte-administration-Who-gained-got-hurt.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Russia ===
{{Main|Russian oligarchs}}

After the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 and the subsequent [[privatization]] of state-owned assets, a class of Russian [[business oligarch]]s emerged. These oligarchs gained control of significant portions of the economy, especially in the energy, metals, and natural resources sectors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691165028 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51] & [https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222–223]}}</ref> Many of these individuals maintained close ties with government officials, particularly the [[President of Russia|president]], leading some to characterize modern Russia as an oligarchy intertwined with the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian oligarchs: What are they and how have they changed over time? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60731864 |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=BBC}}</ref>

In 1996, fearing the possible victory of the [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation|Communist Party]], the oligarchs, especially the [[Seven Bankers]], funded and substantially supported [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s [[Boris Yeltsin 1996 presidential campaign|re-election campaign]] in [[1996 Russian presidential election|that year's election]], continuing to manipulate him and exert influence over his government over the next several years.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Daniel|author1-link=Daniel Treisman |last=Treisman |date=November–December 2000 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20001101fareviewessay946/daniel-treisman/blaming-russia-first.html |title=Blaming Russia First |magazine=Foreign Affairs |access-date=May 13, 2025|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040803112056/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20001101fareviewessay946/daniel-treisman/blaming-russia-first.html |archive-date=3 August 2004 }}</ref> After Yeltsin's successor, [[Vladimir Putin]], came to power in 1999, he cracked down on many oligarchs, arresting several for [[tax evasion]] and forcing others into exile.<ref>{{cite news|title=European Court: Khodorkovsky's Rights Violated|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/european_court_rules_khodorkovskys_rights_violated/24210627.html|access-date=2022-03-02|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|language=en}}</ref> By the end of the 2000s decade, however, Putin had created a new class of oligarchs consisting mainly of his own personal friends and colleagues, continuing to crack down on those who opposed him.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aslund|first=Anders|date=2019-08-13|title=Putin's Economic Policy and Its Consequences|language=en-US|work=Oxford University Press|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/55391047-putin-s-economic-policy-and-its-consequences|access-date=2023-01-28|isbn=978-0190697761}}</ref> According to [[NPR]], he "changed the guy sitting in [the] chairs, but he didn't change the chairs".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-04 |title=What Americans can learn from the story of Russia's oligarchs |url=https://www.ijpr.org/npr-news/2025-02-04/what-americans-can-learn-from-the-story-of-russias-oligarchs |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Jefferson Public Radio |language=en}}</ref>

=== Iran ===
{{Main|Khomeinism|Velayat-e-faqih}}
The [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], established after the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]], is sometimes described as a clerical oligarchy. Its ruling system, known as ''[[Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist|Velayat-e-Faqih]]'' (Governance of the Jurists), places power in the hands of a small group of high-ranking [[Shia Islam|Shia]] clerics, led by the [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]. This group holds significant influence over the country's legislative, military, and economic affairs, and critics argue that this system concentrates power in a religious elite, marginalizing other voices within society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kazemzadeh |first=Masoud |title=Iran's Foreign Policy: Elite Factionalism, Ideology, the Nuclear Weapons Program, and the United States |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-367-49545-9 |location=New York |pages=1–19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Amuzager |first=Jahangir |title=The Islamic Republic of Iran: Reflections on an Emerging Economy |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-85743-748-5 |location=New York |pages=48–50, 88–89}}</ref> The Iranian government has also intensified its surveillance efforts to suppress dissent, particularly targeting women and human rights activists. The "Noor plan," implemented in April 2024, has led to increased policing and criminal prosecution against women defying mandatory hijab laws. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Iran: Government continues systematic repression and escalates surveillance to crush dissent in the aftermath of protests, UN Fact-Finding Mission says |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/03/iran-government-continues-systematic-repression-and-escalates-surveillance |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=OHCHR |language=en}}</ref> 

=== Ukraine ===
{{Main|Ukrainian oligarchs}}

Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, a powerful class of business elites, known as [[Ukrainian oligarchs]], have played a significant role in the country's politics and economy. These oligarchs gained control of state assets during the rapid privatization that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union.<ref name=Chern2018>{{cite journal |last1=Chernenko |first1=Demid |title=Capital structure and oligarch ownership |journal=Economic Change and Restructuring |date=2018 |pages=383–411 |doi=10.1007/S10644-018-9226-9 |volume=52 |issue=4 |s2cid=56232563 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/83641/1/MPRA_paper_83641.pdf}}</ref> President [[Leonid Kuchma]]'s [[multi-vector policy]], which favored close relations with both the West and Russia, was seen as appeasing both groups' oligarchical business interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Riabchuk |first=Mykola |date=2012 |title=Ukraine's 'muddling through': National identity and postcommunist transition |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |volume=45|issue=3–4 |pages=439–446 |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.06.007 }}</ref> In 2021, Ukraine passed a law aimed at curbing oligarchic influence on politics and the economy.<ref name="USAToday" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Zelensky's battle against oligarchs: What does the new law mean? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/23/ukraine-passes-controversial-anti-oligarch-bill |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=2023-09-28}}</ref>

=== United States ===
{{Further|Income inequality in the United States#Democracy and society|Politics of the United States#Oligarchy}}
[[File:The Bosses of the Senate by Joseph Keppler.jpg|thumb|240px|''[[The Bosses of the Senate]]'', [[Corporatocracy|corporate interests]] as giant money bags looming over [[United States Senate|senators]]]]
Several commentators and scholars have suggested that the United States demonstrates characteristics of an oligarchy, particularly in relation to the concentration of wealth and political influence among a small elite,<ref name="Kroll 2010-12-02">{{cite news |first=Andy |last=Kroll |title=The New American Oligarchy |date=2 December 2010 |publisher=[[Truthout]] |url=http://archive.truthout.org/andy-kroll-the-new-american-oligarchy65597 |work=TomDispatch |access-date=17 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122032008/http://archive.truthout.org/andy-kroll-the-new-american-oligarchy65597 |archive-date=22 January 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.tnr.com/article/magazine/books-and-arts/106430/money-politics-inequality-power-one-percent-move-on-effect |title=America on the Brink of Oligarchy |magazine=The New Republic |date=24 August 2012 |last1=Starr |first1=Paul}}</ref><ref name="TAI 11-12/2011"> {{cite journal |title=Oligarchy and Democracy |url=http://www.the-american-interest.com/articles/2011/09/28/oligarchy-and-democracy/ |journal=[[The American Interest]] |date=November–December 2011 |orig-year=28 September 2011 |first=Jeffrey A. |last=Winters |volume=7 |issue=2 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="NYT-19980719">{{cite news |last=Herbert |first=Bob |author-link=Bob Herbert |title=The Donor Class |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/19/opinion/in-america-the-donor-class.html |date=19 July 1998 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20151010">{{cite news |last1=Confessore |first1=Nicholas |last2=Cohen |first2=Sarah |last3=Yourish |first3=Karen |title=The Families Funding the 2016 Presidential Election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/10/11/us/politics/2016-presidential-election-super-pac-donors.html |date=10 October 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref> as exemplified by the list of top donors to political parties.<ref name="NYT-20151010-el">{{cite news |last1=Lichtblau |first1=Eric |last2=Confessore |first2=Nicholas |title=From Fracking to Finance, a Torrent of Campaign Cash – Top Donors List |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/11/us/politics/wealthy-families-presidential-candidates.html#donors-list |date=10 October 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=11 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="CS-20141226">{{cite news |last=McCutcheon |first=Chuck |title=Why the 'donor class' matters, especially in the GOP presidential scrum |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/Politics-Voices/2014/1226/Why-the-donor-class-matters-especially-in-the-GOP-presidential-scrum |date=26 December 2014 |work="[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref><ref>[[Thomas Piketty|Piketty, Thomas]] (2014). ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]].'' [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|067443000X}} p. 514 "The risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed."</ref>

Economist [[Simon Johnson (economist)|Simon Johnson]] argued that the rise of an American financial oligarchy became particularly prominent following the 2008 financial crisis.<ref name="TA Johnson 2009-05">{{cite journal |title=The Quiet Coup |journal=The Atlantic |date=May 2009 |first=Simon |last=Johnson |author-link=Simon Johnson (economist) |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/05/the-quiet-coup/307364/?single_page=true |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref> This financial elite has been described as wielding significant power over both the economy and political decisions. Former President [[Jimmy Carter]] in 2015 characterized the United States as an "oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" following the 2010 ''[[Citizens United v. FEC]]'' Supreme Court decision, which removed limits on donations to political campaigns.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Kreps |first=Daniel |date=2015-07-31 |title=Jimmy Carter: America Is Now an 'Oligarchy' |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/jimmy-carter-u-s-is-an-oligarchy-with-unlimited-political-bribery-63262/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |magazine=Rolling Stone |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2014, a study by political scientists Martin Gilens of [[Princeton University]] and [[Benjamin Page]] of [[Northwestern University]] argued that the United States' political system does not primarily reflect the preferences of its average citizens. Their analysis of policy outcomes between 1981 and 2002 suggested that wealthy individuals and business groups held substantial influence over political decisions, often sidelining the majority of Americans.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens |last1=Gilens |first1=Martin |last2=Page |first2=Benjamin I. |journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |date=2014 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=564–581 |doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595 |doi-access=free}}</ref> While the United States maintains democratic features such as regular elections, freedom of speech, and widespread suffrage, the study noted that policy decisions are disproportionately influenced by economic elites.<ref>Prokop, A. (18 April 2014) [https://www.vox.com/2014/4/18/5624310/martin-gilens-testing-theories-of-american-politics-explained "The new study about oligarchy that's blowing up the Internet, explained"] ''Vox''</ref> However, the study received criticism from other scholars, who argued that the influence of average citizens should not be discounted and that the conclusions about oligarchic tendencies were overstated.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Testing Inferences about American Politics: A Review of the "Oligarchy" Result |journal=Research & Politics |date=1 October 2015 |issn=2053-1680 |pages=2053168015608896 |volume=2 |issue=4 |doi=10.1177/2053168015608896 |language=en |first=Omar S. |last=Bashir |doi-access=free}}</ref> Gilens and Page defended their research, reiterating that while they do not label the United States an outright oligarchy, they found substantial evidence of economic elites dominating certain areas of policy-making.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Gilens |first1=Martin |last2=Page |first2=Benjamin I. |date=2021-12-07 |title=Critics argued with our analysis of U.S. political inequality. Here are 5 ways they're wrong. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/05/23/critics-challenge-our-portrait-of-americas-political-inequality-heres-5-ways-they-are-wrong/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

In his presidential [[Joe Biden's farewell address|farewell address]] on January 15, 2025, outgoing U.S. President [[Joe Biden]] warned that an oligarchy was taking shape in America which threatened democracy, basic rights, and freedom, aided by a [[tech–industrial complex]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Kathryn |date=2025-01-16 |title=In final address, Biden warns of rise of "tech industrial complex" while outlining threats, challenges - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biden-primetime-farewell-address/ |access-date=2025-01-16 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-16 |title=Biden warns of dangers of oligarchy taking shape in US |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1weqzl3ydro.amp |access-date=2025-01-16 |website=BBC News |language=en-gb}}</ref> Businessman [[Elon Musk]], a close collaborator of [[Donald Trump]] during his [[Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign|2024 campaign]] and head of the [[Department of Government Efficiency]], has been described as an oligarch due to his extensive influence on Trump during his second presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/germanys-habeck-rails-against-musk-as-a-tech-oligarch-calls-for-european-alternative-to-x/|title=Germany’s Habeck slams 'tech oligarch' Musk, calls for a European X|last=Lunday|first=Chris|date=February 18, 2025|publisher=Politico Europe|access-date=February 20, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2025/02/04/nx-s1-5269732/oligarchy-russia-united-states-trump-musk-bezos|title=What Americans can learn from the story of Russia's oligarchs|last=Inskeep|first=Steve|publisher=NPR|date=February 4, 2025|access-date=February 14, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kuper |first=Simon |date=2023-10-28 |title=From Putin to Musk: the making of a modern-day oligarch |url=https://www.ft.com/content/1da1da6b-9410-4ab5-a295-f3a9e48f9977 |access-date=2025-02-04 |work=Financial Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-84786-8_5|last1=Merrin|first1=William|last2=Hoskins|first2=Andrew|title=Sharded Media: Trump's Rage Against the Mainstream|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=83–108|isbn=978-3-031-84786-8|access-date=April 21, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pruszyinski |first=Katie |date=March 24, 2025 |title=Trump 2.0 and the New American Oligarchy |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/20419058251332336a |journal=Political Insight |volume=16 |issue=1 |doi=10.1177/20419058251332336a |access-date=April 21, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Naudé |first=Wim |date=22 March 2025 |title=The Economic Decline of the West: Guns, Oil, and Oligarchs |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-82299-5_3 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=55–96 |isbn=978-3-031-82298-8 |access-date=April 21, 2025}}</ref> Musk contributed over $200 million into the 2024 election, creating a "super" [[political action committee|PAC]] to promote Trump's campaign.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/oligarchy-biden-zuckerburg-bezos-musk-altman-a44e281c6dbf2fd6cd174f13cdcdc1c5|title=Biden warns the US risks becoming an ‘oligarchy.’ What does the term mean?|website=Associated Press|last1=Boak|first1=Josh|date=January 16, 2025|access-date=February 19, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/elon-musk-trump-donations-super-pac|title=Elon Musk was behind mysterious pro-Trump super PAC that invoked Ruth Bader Ginsburg|last=Piper|first=Jessica|publisher=Politico|date=December 5, 2024|access-date=February 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/money/387348/elon-musk-trump-president-billionaire-oligarchy|title=Elon Musk and the age of shameless oligarchy|date=November 25, 2024|last=Kim|first=Whizy|publisher=Vox|access-date=April 21, 2025}}</ref>