Editing Old English literature (section)

=== Form and style ===
The most distinguishing feature of Old English poetry is its [[alliterative verse]] style.

The Anglo-Latin verse tradition in early medieval England was accompanied by discourses on Latin [[metre (poetry)|prosody]], which were 'rules' or guidance for writers. The rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts.

The first widely accepted theory was constructed by [[Eduard Sievers]] (1893), who distinguished five distinct [[alliteration|alliterative]] patterns.{{sfn|Sievers|1893}} His system of [[alliterative verse]] is based on [[accentual verse|accent]], alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of [[Syllable|syllabic]] accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older [[Germanic language]]s.

Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of [[John C. Pope]] (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns.{{sfn|Pope|1942}} [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "[[On Translating Beowulf|On Translating ''Beowulf'']]{{-"}}.{{sfn|Tolkien|1983}}

==== Alliteration and assonance ====
{{Main|alliterative verse}}

Old English poetry alliterates, meaning that a sound is repeated throughout a line, generally taken from the first syllable of the first stressed word in a line. Alliteration is based on sound rather than letter. For instance, in the first line of [[The Wanderer (Old English poem)|The Wanderer]], "Oft him anhaga are gebideð", "Often the loner finds grace for himself", the 'o' of 'oft', and 'a' in 'anhaga' and 'are' all alliterate. Prefixes, such as 'ge-' are always unstressed and therefore are not part of alliterative patterns, while consonant clusters, for example 'st' or 'sp' may only alliterate with themselves, not any word beginning with 's'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Old English Online - Syntax |url=https://oldenglish.info/syntax4.html |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=oldenglish.info}}</ref>

==== Caesura ====
Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the [[caesura]] or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two [[hemistich]]s.

==== Metaphor ====
[[Kenning]]s are a key feature of Old English poetry. A kenning is an often formulaic metaphorical phrase that describes one thing in terms of another: for instance, in ''[[Beowulf]]'', the sea is called the ''whale road''. Another example of a kenning in ''[[The Wanderer (Old English poem)|The Wanderer]]'' is a reference to battle as a "storm of spears".<ref>''The Wanderer'' line 99</ref>

Old English poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of [[simile]]s.<ref name="HumeK1975">{{cite journal|author=Kathryn Hume|title=The Theme and Structure of Beowulf|journal=Studies in Philology|volume=72|issue=1|date=January 1975|pages=1–27}}</ref> ''[[Beowulf]]'' contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety.<ref name="HumeK1975"/>

==== Variation ====
The Old English poet was particularly fond of describing the same person or object with varied phrases (often appositives) that indicated different qualities of that person or object. For instance, the ''Beowulf'' poet refers in three and a half lines to a Danish king as "lord of the Danes" (referring to the people in general), "king of the Scyldings" (the name of the specific Danish tribe), "giver of rings" (one of the king's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief". Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation.{{sfn|Howe|2012}}

==== Litotes ====
Litotes is a form of dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect.{{sfn|Sievers|1893}}