Editing Nonviolence (section)

====Hinduism====

=====Ancient Vedic texts=====
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in [[Vedas|Vedic texts]].<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Walli, Koshelya: ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'', Varanasi 1974, p. 113–145.</ref> The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, but do not emphasise it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasised, ultimately Ahimsa becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Sanskrit: अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda 10.22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924063809/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 |date=2020-09-24 }} Wikisource;<br />English: Unto Tähtinen (1964), Non-violence as an Ethical Principle, Turun Yliopisto, Finland, PhD Thesis, pages 23–25; {{oclc|4288274}};<br />For other occurrence of Ahimsa in Rigveda, see [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४ Rigveda 5.64.3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924061032/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AB.%E0%A5%AC%E0%A5%AA |date=2020-09-24 }}, [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१ Rigveda 1.141.5] ;</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017133837/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html |date=2013-10-17 }} Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE;<br />For other occurrences of Ahimsa in Vedic literature, see [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/150/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance] [[Maurice Bloomfield]], Harvard University Press, page 151</ref>

The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalisation of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>

Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.<ref>John Bowker, ''Problems of suffering in religions of the world.'' Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233.</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word ''Ahimsa'' in these Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>Kaneda, T. (2008). Shanti, peacefulness of mind. C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, pages 171–192, {{ISBN|978-0-8058-5673-6}}, Taylor & Francis</ref> Other scholars<ref name=arapura/><ref>Izawa, A. (2008). Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual. Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, 12, 78</ref> suggest ''Ahimsa'' as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.

The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the [[Vedas|Vedic era]] use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[Reincarnation|rebirths]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.</ref> Some scholars state that this 8th or 7th-century BCE mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.<ref>M.K Sridhar and Puruṣottama Bilimoria (2007), ''Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges,'' Editors: Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, Ashgate Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3301-3}}, page 315</ref> Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeffery D.|last=Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ|year=2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-625-5|pages=31–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Dundas|title=The Jains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055|pages=22–24, 73–83}}</ref>

Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Arjavam (sincerity), [[Dāna|Danam]] (charity), [[Tapas (Indian religions)|Tapo]] (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-81-7933-159-0}}, see page 11–14</ref>

The Sandilya [[Upanishad]] lists ten forbearances: '''Ahimsa''', Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava, Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara and Saucha.<ref>{{citation|last1=Swami|first1=P. |year=2000|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads: SZ |volume=3|publisher=Sarup & Sons|pages=630–631}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Ballantyne|first1=J. R. |last2=Yogīndra|first2=S. |year=1850|title=A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the Vedánta-sára|publisher=Presbyterian mission press}}</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.

=====The Epics=====
The ''[[Mahabharata]]'', one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Mahaprasthanika Parva]] has the verse:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm|title=The Mahabharata in Sanskrit: Book 13: Chapter 117|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2023-05-12|archive-date=2023-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406002307/https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
<blockquote><poem>
अहिंसा परमो धर्मस् तथाहिंसा परो दमः।
अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस् तपः।
अहिंसा परमो यज्ञस् तथाहिंसा परं बलम्।
अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्।
अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥
</poem></blockquote>
The above passage from ''Mahabharata'' emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and literally means: Ahimsa is the highest [[virtue]], Ahimsa is the highest self-control, Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best suffering, Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength, Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness, Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (pp. 168–177). Springer New York.</ref><ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/pdf_downloads/what_is_hinduism/Sec6/WIH_Sec6_Chapter45.pdf Ahimsa: To do no harm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107092918/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/pdf_downloads/what_is_hinduism/Sec6/WIH_Sec6_Chapter45.pdf |date=2013-11-07 }} Subramuniyaswami, What is Hinduism?, Chapter 45, Pages 359–361</ref> Some other examples where the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' are discussed include [[Adi Parva]], [[Vana Parva]] and [[Anushasana Parva]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the [[Just war theory|theories of just war]]. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about nonviolence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref name=fischer1954>Fischer, Louis: ''Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World'' Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15–16</ref>

=====Self-defence, criminal law, and war=====
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment.<ref name=balkaran2012>Balkaran, R., & Dorn, A. W. (2012). [http://www.sareligionuoft.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/JAAR-Article-Violence-in-the-Valmiki-Ramayana-Just-War-Criteria-in-an-Ancient-Indian-Epic-.pdf Violence in the Vālmı̄ki Rāmāyaṇa: Just War Criteria in an Ancient Indian Epic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412060315/http://www.sareligionuoft.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/JAAR-Article-Violence-in-the-Valmiki-Ramayana-Just-War-Criteria-in-an-Ancient-Indian-Epic-.pdf |date=2019-04-12 }}, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 80(3), 659–690.</ref><ref name=klos1996>[[Klaus K. Klostermaier]] (1996), in Harvey Leonard Dyck and Peter Brock (Ed), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective, see ''Chapter on Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-8020-0777-3}}, University of Toronto Press, pages 230–234</ref> [[Arthashastra]] discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>Paul F. Robinson (2003), Just War in Comparative Perspective, {{ISBN|0-7546-3587-2}}, Ashgate Publishing, see pages 114–125</ref><ref>Coates, B. E. (2008). Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa. Comparative Strategy, 27(2), pages 133–147</ref>

;War
The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction.<ref>Subedi, S. P. (2003). The Concept in Hinduism of 'Just War'. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 8(2), pages 339–361</ref> All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to the opponent; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>

;Self-defence
In matters of self-defence, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defence is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–101.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 91–93.</ref>

Alternate theories of self-defence, inspired by Ahimsa, build principles similar to theories of just war. [[Aikido]], pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such principles of self-defence. [[Morihei Ueshiba]], the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.<ref>[http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412060316/http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf |date=2019-04-12 }} Nebojša Vasic, University of Zenica (2011); Sport SPA Vol. 8, Issue 2: 47–51; see page 46, 2nd column</ref> According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self-defence, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error or fear, attack other persons or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defence, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralise the aggression of the attacker, and avoid the conflict. The best defence is one where the victim is protected, as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under Ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity, assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174614/http://www.aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf SOCIAL CONFLICT, AGGRESSION, AND THE BODY IN EURO-AMERICAN AND ASIAN SOCIAL THOUGHT] Donald Levine, University of Chicago (2004)</ref><ref>Ueshiba, Kisshōmaru (2004), ''The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques'', Kodansha International, {{ISBN|4-7700-2945-4}}</ref>

; Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–99.</ref>

Other scholars<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/> conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional and not cruel.

=====Non-human life=====
The Hindu precept of 'cause no injury' applies to animals and all life forms. This precept isn't found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 BC and 400 AD.<ref name=chapple16>Christopher Chapple (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-1498-1}}, pages 16–17</ref><ref>W Norman Brown (February 1964), [http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf ''The sanctity of the cow in Hinduism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930225053/https://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf |date=2020-09-30 }}, The Economic Weekly, pages 245–255</ref> In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of Ahimsa to non-human life.<ref>D.N. Jha (2002), ''The Myth of the Holy Cow'', {{ISBN|1-85984-676-9}}, Verso</ref><ref>Steven Rosen (2004), Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights, {{ISBN|1-59056-066-3}}, pages 19–39</ref>

Hindu scriptures, dated to between 5th century and 1st century BC, while discussing human diet, initially suggest ''kosher'' meat may be eaten, evolving it with the suggestion that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, then that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots and fruits alone.<ref name=chapple16/><ref>[[Baudhayana]] Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; [[Apastamba]] Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.</ref>

Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against ''dharma'' (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics<ref>Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5), 3.199.19–29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-8:19</ref> shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa precept, given the constraints of life and human needs.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 592–593.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 13.115.59–60; 13.116.15–18.</ref> The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly nonviolent. [[Sushruta Samhita]], a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women,<ref>Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna (1907), An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Volume I, Part 2; see Chapter starting on page 469; for discussion on meats and fishes, see page 480 and onwards</ref><ref>Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.</ref> and the [[Charaka Samhita]] describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.<ref>Sutrasthana 27.87.</ref>

Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus.<ref>Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17; Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).</ref> Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen pp. 34–36.</ref><ref>The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.</ref><ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm Mahabharata 12.260] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910073935/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm |date=2007-09-10 }} (12.260 is 12.268 according to another count); 13.115–116; 14.28.</ref> In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm Mahabharata 3.199] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929130620/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm |date=2007-09-29 }} (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count).</ref>

Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 39–43.</ref><ref>Alsdorf p. 589–590; Schmidt pp. 634–635, 640–643; Tähtinen pp. 41–42.</ref>

The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Schmidt pp. 637–639; Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>[[Rod Preece]], Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-0725-8}}, University of British Columbia Press, pages 212–217</ref> Scholars<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (pages 168–177). Springer New York</ref><ref>Van Horn, G. (2006). Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article. Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, 10(1), 5–39</ref> claim the principles of ecological non-violence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.

The dharmic philosophy of ancient India exists in all Indian languages and culture. For example, the ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]],'' written between 200 BCE and 500 CE, and sometimes called the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Veda]], is one of the most cherished classics written in a South Indian language. The ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' dedicates Chapters 26, 32 and 33 of [[Aram (Kural book)|Book 1]] to the virtue of ahimsa, namely, [[moral vegetarianism]], [[non-violence|non-harming]], and [[non-killing]], respectively. The ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' says that ahimsa applies to all life forms.<ref name="Sundaram_Kural">{{cite book | last = Sundaram | first = P. S. | title = Tiruvalluvar Kural| publisher = Penguin | date = 1990 | location = Gurgaon | pages = 44, 50–51 | isbn = 978-0-14-400009-8}}</ref><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm Tirukkuṛaḷ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216064046/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |date=16 December 2014 }} see Chapter 32 and 33, Book 1</ref><ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777453934 Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by V.V.R. Aiyar, Tirupparaithurai: Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam (1998)</ref>