Editing Noise pollution (section)

==Impacts==
===Human health===
{{Main|Health effects from noise}}

Noise pollution affects both [[health]] and [[behavior]]. Unwanted sound (noise) can damage physiological health and [[mental health]]. Noise pollution is associated with several health conditions, including cardiovascular disorders, [[hypertension]], high stress levels, [[tinnitus]], hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Rosen">S. Rosen and P. Olin, ''Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease'', Archives of Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965)</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Noise Pollution
| url = http://www.euro.who.int/Noise
| publisher = [[World Health Organization]]
| date = 2018-12-08
| access-date = 2008-04-20
| archive-date = 2010-01-08
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100108141209/http://www.euro.who.int/Noise
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| title=Road noise link to blood pressure
| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8247217.stm
| work=[[BBC News]]
| date=2009-09-10
| access-date=2009-09-10
| archive-date=2021-09-29
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929113215/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8247217.stm
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kerns E, Masterson EA, Themann CL, Calvert GM | title = Cardiovascular conditions, hearing difficulty, and occupational noise exposure within US industries and occupations | journal = American Journal of Industrial Medicine | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 477–491 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29537072 | pmc = 6897488 | doi = 10.1002/ajim.22833 }}</ref> According to a research article, the exposure of sound level more than 81 dB inreased the chances of prehypertension and hypertension in local population of Pakistan. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kashif Nawaz |first1=Syed |last2=Hasnain |first2=Shahida |date=2010-08-20 |title=Noise Induced Hypertension and Prehypertension in Pakistan |url=http://www.bjbms.org/ojs/index.php/bjbms/article/view/2694 |journal=Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=239–244 |doi=10.17305/bjbms.2010.2694 |issn=1840-4812 |pmc=5504502 |pmid=20846132}}</ref>  According to a 2019 review of the existing literature, noise pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paul KC, Haan M, Mayeda ER, Ritz BR | title = Ambient Air Pollution, Noise, and Late-Life Cognitive Decline and Dementia Risk | journal = Annual Review of Public Health | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = 203–220 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30935305 | pmc = 6544148 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044058 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Across Europe, according to the [[European Environment Agency]], it estimated 113 million people are affected by road traffic noise levels above 55&nbsp;decibels, the threshold at which noise becomes harmful to human health by the WHO's definition.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |title=One in five Europeans exposed to harmful noise pollution – study |date=2020-03-05 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2020-03-05 |archive-date=2020-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305064317/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities such as sleep or conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one's quality of life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jefferson|first=Catrice|title=Noise Pollution|url=http://www.epa.gov/air/noise.html|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=2013-09-24|archive-date=2016-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622083923/https://www3.epa.gov/air/noise.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Noise-induced hearing loss]] can be caused by prolonged exposure to noise levels above 85 A-weighted [[decibel]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/noise-induced-hearing-loss|title=Noise-Induced Hearing Loss|last=National Institutes of Health|first=NIDCD|date=Feb 7, 2017|access-date=June 29, 2018|archive-date=April 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414132329/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/noise-induced-hearing-loss|url-status=live}}</ref> A comparison of [[Maaban]] tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.<ref name="Rosen" />

Noise exposure in the workplace can also contribute to [[noise-induced hearing loss]] and other health issues. [[Occupational hearing loss]] is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the U.S. and worldwide.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url= https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise |title= Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention |last= National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health |date= Feb 6, 2018 |access-date= June 29, 2018 |archive-date= June 29, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235639/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

It is less clear how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture.<ref name="Schafer 1977">{{cite book |last=Schafer |first=Murray |title=The Soundscape |date=1977 |publisher=Destiny Books}}</ref> Schafer notes that sound is an expression of power in material culture. As such, fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a particular sound.<ref name="Schafer 1977"/>

Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand, and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research, Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of the soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fong |first1=Jack |title=Making Operative Concepts from Murray Schafer's Soundscapes Typology: A Qualitative and Comparative Analysis of Noise Pollution in Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California |journal=Urban Studies |year=2014 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=173–192 |doi=10.1177/0042098014562333 |s2cid=30362727 }}</ref>

Noise pollution can have negative affects on adults and children on the [[Autism spectrum|autistic spectrum]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.autismspeaks.org/expert-opinion/autism-anxiety-parents-seek-help-extreme-reaction-loud-noise-0|title=Autism & Anxiety: Parents seek help for extreme reaction to loud noise|website=Autism Speaks|access-date=2018-11-05|archive-date=2019-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513170849/https://www.autismspeaks.org/expert-opinion/autism-anxiety-parents-seek-help-extreme-reaction-loud-noise-0|url-status=live}}</ref> Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can have hyperacusis, which is an abnormal sensitivity to sound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/tinnitus-and-hyperacusis/|title=Tinnitus and Hyperacusis: Overview|website=American Speech-Language-Hearing Association|access-date=2019-04-12|archive-date=2019-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412163949/https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/tinnitus-and-hyperacusis/|url-status=live}}</ref> People with ASD who experience hyperacusis may have unpleasant emotions, such as fear and anxiety, and uncomfortable physical sensations in noisy environments with loud sounds.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Stiegler LN, Davis R |year=2010|title=Understanding Sound Sensitivity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders |journal=Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities |volume=25 |number=2 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1177/1088357610364530|s2cid=146251446}}</ref> This can cause individuals with ASD to avoid environments with noise pollution, which in turn can result in isolation and negatively affect their quality of life. Sudden explosive noises typical of high-performance car exhausts and car alarms are types of noise pollution that can affect people with ASD.<ref name=":1" />

While the elderly may have cardiac problems due to noise, according to the World Health Organization, children are especially vulnerable to noise, and the effects that noise has on children may be permanent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Children and Noise|url=https://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/noise.pdf|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=2020-10-05|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919130600/https://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/noise.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Noise poses a serious threat to a child's physical and psychological health, and may negatively interfere with a child's learning and behavior.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noise and Its Effects on Children|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/ochp_noise_fs_rev1.pdf|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=2018-03-21|archive-date=2017-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829021829/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/ochp_noise_fs_rev1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Exposure to persistent noise pollution shows how important maintaining [[environmental health]] is in keeping [[child]]ren and [[Old age|elderly]] healthy.<ref>"The Effects of Noise on Health". ''hms.harvard.edu''. Retrieved 2023-03-09.</ref>

===Wildlife===
Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats.<ref name="Sordello-2019">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sordello R, De Lachapelle FF, Livoreil B, Vanpeene S |date=2019 |title=Evidence of the environmental impact of noise pollution on biodiversity: a systematic map protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1186/s13750-019-0146-6 |bibcode=2019EnvEv...8....8S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although sounds are commonly present in the environment, anthropogenic noises are distinguishable due to differences in frequency and amplitude.<ref name="Francis-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Francis CD, Ortega CP, Cruz A |date=August 2009 |title=Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions |journal=Current Biology |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=1415–9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052 |pmid=19631542 |s2cid=15985432 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009CBio...19.1415F }}</ref> Many animals use sounds to communicate with others of their species, whether that is for reproduction purposes, navigation, or to notify others of prey or predators. However, anthropogenic noises inhibit species from detecting these sounds, affecting overall communication within the population.<ref name="Francis-2009" /> Species such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, mammals, and invertebrates are examples of biological groups that are impacted by noise pollution.<ref name="Sordello-2019" /><ref name="Kunc-2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kunc HP, Schmidt R |date=November 2019 |title=The effects of anthropogenic noise on animals: a meta-analysis |journal=Biology Letters |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=20190649 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2019.0649 |pmc=6892517 |pmid=31744413}}</ref> If animals cannot communicate with one another, this would result in reproduction to decline (not able to find mates), and higher mortality (lack of communication for predator detection).<ref name="Sordello-2019" /> The study of these relationships between acoustic organisms, the acoustic environment, and resulting impacts is known as [[soundscape ecology]] or [[acoustic ecology]]. 

[[European robin]]s living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ | title = Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 368–370 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17456449 | pmc = 2390663 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134 }}</ref> The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time [[light pollution]], to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise reduced the species richness of birds found in Neotropical urban parks.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors=Perillo A, Mazzoni LG, Passos LF, Goulart VD, Duca C, Young RJ| year=2017| title=Anthropogenic noise reduces bird species richness and diversity in urban parks| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=638–646| doi=10.1111/ibi.12481| issue=3| s2cid=89816734| url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| access-date=2019-09-24| archive-date=2019-04-28| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428182041/http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Zebra finch]]es become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milius |first1=Susan |title=High volume, low fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare |journal=Science News |date=30 September 2009 |volume=172 |issue=8 |pages=116 |doi=10.1002/scin.2007.5591720804 }}</ref>

====Why invertebrates are affected====
Several reasons have been identified relating to hypersensitivity in invertebrates when exposed to [[Soundscape ecology#Anthropophony and insects|anthropogenic noise]]. Invertebrates have evolved to pick up sound, and a large portion of their physiology is adapted for the purpose of detecting environmental vibrations.<ref name="Morley_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morley EL, Jones G, Radford AN | title = The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 281 | issue = 1776 | pages = 20132683 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24335986 | pmc = 3871318 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2013.2683 }}</ref> Antennae or hairs on the organism pick up particle motion.<ref name="Nedelec_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nedelec SL, Campbell J, Radford AN, Simpson SD, Merchant ND | title = Particle motion: the missing link in underwater acoustic ecology. | journal = Methods in Ecology and Evolution | date = July 2016 | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = 836–42 | doi = 10.1111/2041-210x.12544 | bibcode = 2016MEcEv...7..836N | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30438 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Anthropogenic noise created in the marine environment, such as pile driving and shipping, are picked up through particle motion; these activities exemplify near-field stimuli.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" />

The ability to detect vibration through mechanosensory structures is most important in invertebrates and fish. Mammals, also, depend on pressure detector ears to perceive the noise around them.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" /> Therefore, it is suggested that marine invertebrates are likely perceiving the effects of noise differently than marine mammals. It is reported that invertebrates can detect a large range of sounds, but noise sensitivity varies substantially between each species. Generally, however, invertebrates depend on frequencies under 10&nbsp;kHz. This is the frequency at which a great deal of ocean noise occurs.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Hallander J, Lee D | year = 2015 | title = Shipping and Underwater Radiated Noise. | work = SSPA Highlights | publisher = SSPA Sweden AB | url = https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | access-date = 2020-05-13 | archive-date = 2020-08-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200803090545/https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | url-status = live }}</ref>

Therefore, not only does anthropogenic noise often mask invertebrate communication, but it also negatively impacts other biological system functions through noise-induced stress.<ref name="Morley_2014" />
Another one of the leading causes of noise effects in invertebrates is because sound is used in multiple behavioral contexts by many groups. This includes regularly sound produced or perceived in the context of aggression or predator avoidance. Invertebrates also utilize sound to attract or locate mates, and often employ sound in the courtship process.<ref name="Morley_2014" />

====Stress recorded in physiological and behavioral responses====
[[File:20220623 Noise pollution. Tomaszów Mazowiecki (60,000 population town), residential area.oga|thumb|An exaggerated sound from machines used for the care of greenery. A four-story apartments complex area in [[Tomaszów Mazowiecki]], Poland ]]
Many of the studies that were conducted on invertebrate exposure to noise found that a physiological or behavioral response was triggered. Most of the time, this related to stress, and provided concrete evidence that marine invertebrates detect and respond to noise. Some of the most informative studies in this category focus on [[Hermit crab|hermit crabs]]. In one study, it was found that the behavior of the hermit crab ''[[Pagurus bernhardus]]'', when attempting to choose a shell, was modified when subjected to noise.<ref name="Walsh_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh EP, Arnott G, Kunc HP | title = Noise affects resource assessment in an invertebrate | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | page = 20170098 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28404823 | pmc = 5414699 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0098 }}</ref>

Proper selection of hermit crab shells strongly contributes to their ability to survive. Shells offer protection against predators, high salinity and desiccation.<ref name="Walsh_2017" /> However, researchers determined that approach to shell, investigation of shell, and habitation of shell, occurred over a shorter time duration with anthropogenic noise as a factor. This indicated that assessment and decision-making processes of the hermit crab were both altered, even though hermit crabs are not known to evaluate shells using any auditory or mechanoreception mechanisms.<ref name="Walsh_2017" />

In another study that focused on ''Pagurus bernhardus'' and the [[blue mussel]] (''Mytilus edulis''), physical behaviors exhibited a stress response to noise. When the hermit crab and mussel were exposed to different types of noise, significant variation in the valve gape occurred in the blue mussel.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020">{{cite conference | vauthors = Breithaupt T, Elliott M, Roberts L, Simpson S, Bruintjes R, Harding H, Radford A, Voellmy IK, Harding HR, Voellmy I, Simpson SD | title = Exposure of benthic invertebrates to sediment vibration: From laboratory experiments to outdoor simulated pile-driving. | series = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | conference = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | date = April 2020 | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | page = 010029 | publisher = Acoustical Society of America | doi = 10.1121/2.0000324 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30440 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> The hermit crab responded to the noise by lifting the shell off of the ground multiple times, then vacating the shell to examine it before returning inside.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020" /> The results from the hermit crab trials were ambiguous with respect to causation; more studies must be conducted in order to determine whether the behavior of the hermit crab can be attributed to the noise produced.

Another study that demonstrates a stress response in invertebrates was conducted on the [[longfin inshore squid]] (''Doryteuthis pealeii''). The squid was exposed to sounds of construction known as pile driving, which impacts the sea bed directly and produces intense substrate-borne and water-borne vibrations.<ref name="Roberts_2017" /> The squid reacted by jetting, inking, pattern change and other startle responses.<ref name="Jones_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones IT, Stanley JA, Mooney TA | title = Impulsive pile driving noise elicits alarm responses in squid (Doryteuthis pealeii) | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 150 | pages = 110792 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31910530 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110792 | bibcode = 2020MarPB.15010792J | s2cid = 210086977 | doi-access =  }}</ref> Since the responses recorded are similar to those identified when faced with a predator, it is implied that the squid initially viewed the sounds as a threat. However, it was also noted that the alarm responses decreased over a period of time, signifying that the squid had likely acclimated to the noise.<ref name="Jones_2020" /> Regardless, it is apparent that stress occurred in the squid, and although further investigation has not been pursued, researchers suspect that other implications exist that may alter the squid's survival habits.<ref name="Jones_2020" />

An additional study examined the impact noise exposure had on the [[Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin]] (''Sousa chinensis''). The dolphins were exposed to elevated noise levels due to construction in the Pearl River Estuary in China, specifically caused by the world's largest vibration hammer—the OCTA-KONG.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Z, Wu Y, Duan G, Cao H, Liu J, Wang K, Wang D | title = Assessing the underwater acoustics of the world's largest vibration hammer (OCTA-KONG) and its potential effects on the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = e110590 | date = 2014-10-22 | pmid = 25338113 | pmc = 4206436 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0110590 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9k0590W | doi-access = free }}</ref> The study suggested that while the dolphin's clicks were not affected, their whistles were because of susceptibility to [[auditory masking]].<ref name=":17" /> The noise from the OCTA-KONG was found to have been detectable by the dolphins up to 3.5&nbsp;km away from the original source, and while the noise was not found to be life-threatening it was indicated that prolonged exposure to this noise could be responsible for auditory damage.<ref name=":17" />

=== Marine life ===
Noise pollution is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species.<ref name="Weilgart-2008">{{cite thesis |vauthors=Weilgart LS |title=The Impact of Ocean Noise Pollution on Marine Biodiversity |date=2008 |url=https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/Weilgart_Biodiversity_2008-1238105851-10133.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.542.534 |s2cid=13176067}}</ref> For many marine populations, sound is their primary sense used for their survival; able to detect sound hundreds to thousands of kilometers away from a source, while vision is limited to tens of meters underwater.<ref name="Weilgart-2008" /> As anthropogenic noises continue to increase, doubling every decade, this compromises the survivability of marine species.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jovicic ST, Saric ZM, Turajlic SR |date=October 2005 |title=Application of the maximum signal to interference ratio criterion to the adaptive microphone array |journal=Acoustics Research Letters Online |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=232–237 |doi=10.1121/1.1989785|doi-access=free }}</ref> One study discovered that as [[seismic noise]]s and [[Sonar|naval sonar]] increases in marine ecosystems, [[cetacea]]n, such as whales and dolphins, diversity decreases.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández A, Edwards JF, Rodríguez F, Espinosa de los Monteros A, Herráez P, Castro P, Jaber JR, Martín V, Arbelo M |date=July 2005 |title='Gas and fat embolic syndrome' involving a mass stranding of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) exposed to anthropogenic sonar signals |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=446–57 |doi=10.1354/vp.42-4-446 |pmid=16006604 |s2cid=43571676|doi-access=free }}</ref> Noise pollution has also impaired fish hearing, killed and isolated whale populations, intensified stress response in marine species, and changed species' physiology. Because marine species are sensitive to noise, most marine wildlife are located in undisturbed habitats or areas not exposed to significant anthropogenic noise, limiting suitable habitats to forage and mate. Whales have changed their migration route to avoid anthropogenic noise, as well as altering their calls.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Marine Mammals and Noise |vauthors=Richardson WJ |publisher=Academic Press |year=1995 |location=San Diego}}</ref>

For many marine organisms, sound is the primary means of learning about their environments. For example, many species of marine mammals and fish use sound as their primary means of navigating, communicating, and foraging.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=André M, van der Schaar M, Zaugg S, Houégnigan L, Sánchez AM, Castell JV |date=2011 |title=Listening to the Deep: live monitoring of ocean noise and cetacean acoustic signals |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=63 |issue=1–4 |pages=18–26 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.04.038 |pmid=21665016 |bibcode=2011MarPB..63...18A |hdl-access=free |hdl=2117/12808}}</ref> Anthropogenic noise can have a detrimental effect on animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gomes DG, Page RA, Geipel I, Taylor RC, Ryan MJ, Halfwerk W |date=September 2016 |title=Bats perceptually weight prey cues across sensory systems when hunting in noise |journal=Science |volume=353 |issue=6305 |pages=1277–1280 |bibcode=2016Sci...353.1277G |doi=10.1126/science.aaf7934 |pmid=27634533 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to reproduction, and in navigation and echolocation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gomes DG, Goerlitz HR |date=18 December 2020 |title=Individual differences show that only some bats can cope with noise-induced masking and distraction |journal=PeerJ |volume=8 |pages=e10551 |doi=10.7717/peerj.10551 |pmc=7751433 |pmid=33384901 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These effects then may alter more interactions within a community through indirect ("[[domino]]") effects.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barton BT, Hodge ME, Speights CJ, Autrey AM, Lashley MA, Klink VP |date=August 2018 |title=Testing the AC/DC hypothesis: Rock and roll is noise pollution and weakens a trophic cascade |journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=8 |issue=15 |pages=7649–7656 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4273 |pmc=6106185 |pmid=30151178|bibcode=2018EcoEv...8.7649B }}</ref> Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.

Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species of whales that [[beached whale|beached]] themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military [[sonar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event of 15–16 March 2000 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/acoustics/bahamas_stranding.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201004213/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/acoustics/bahamas_stranding.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2017 |work=NOAA Fisheries}}</ref> (see also [[Marine mammals and sonar]]) Up until recently, most research on noise impacts has been focused on marine mammals, and to a lesser degree, fish.<ref name="pmid19666180">{{cite journal |vauthors=Codarin A, Wysocki LE, Ladich F, Picciulin M |date=December 2009 |title=Effects of ambient and boat noise on hearing and communication in three fish species living in a marine protected area (Miramare, Italy) |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=58 |issue=12 |pages=1880–1887 |bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1880C |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.011 |pmid=19666180}}</ref><ref name="Kershaw_2016">{{cite web |date=15 December 2006 |title=Noise Seriously Impacts Marine Invertebrates |url=https://www.nrdc.org/experts/francine-kershaw/new-science-noise-seriously-impacts-marine-invertebrates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813124342/https://www.nrdc.org/experts/francine-kershaw/new-science-noise-seriously-impacts-marine-invertebrates |archive-date=13 August 2020 |access-date=12 May 2020 |work=New Science |vauthors=Kershaw F}}</ref> In the past few years, scientists have shifted to conducting studies on invertebrates and their responses to anthropogenic sounds in the marine environment. This research is essential, especially considering that invertebrates make up 75% of marine species, and thus compose a large percentage of ocean food webs.<ref name="Kershaw_2016" /> Of the studies that have been conducted, a sizable variety in families of invertebrates have been represented in the research. A variation in the complexity of their sensory systems exists, which allows scientists to study a range of characteristics and develop a better understanding of anthropogenic noise impacts on living organisms.

Even marine invertebrates, such as crabs (''[[Carcinus maenas]]''), have been shown to be negatively affected by ship noise.<ref name="DeepSNcrabs">{{cite web |last=McClain |first=Craig |date=2013-04-03 |title=Loud Noise Makes Crabs Even More Crabby |url=http://deepseanews.com/2013/04/load-noise-makes-crabs-edgy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423023923/https://www.deepseanews.com/2013/04/load-noise-makes-crabs-edgy/ |archive-date=2020-04-23 |access-date=2013-04-04 |publisher=Deep Sea News}}</ref><ref name="WaleSimpson2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wale MA, Simpson SD, Radford AN |date=April 2013 |title=Size-dependent physiological responses of shore crabs to single and repeated playback of ship noise |journal=Biology Letters |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=20121194 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2012.1194 |pmc=3639773 |pmid=23445945}}</ref> Larger crabs were noted to be negatively affected more by the sounds than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds did lead to [[acclimatization]].<ref name="WaleSimpson2013" />

Underwater noise pollution due to human activities is also prevalent in the sea, and given that sound travels faster through water than through air, is a major source of disruption of marine ecosystems and does significant harm to sea life, including marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gill |first=Victoria |date=February 4, 2021 |title=Noise pollution 'drowns out ocean soundscape' |work=BBC |location= |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55939344 |url-status=live |access-date=February 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208175226/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55939344 |archive-date=February 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Duarte CM, Chapuis L, Collin SP, Costa DP, Devassy RP, Eguiluz VM, Erbe C, Gordon TA, Halpern BS, Harding HR, Havlik MN, Meekan M, Merchant ND, Miksis-Olds JL, Parsons M, Predragovic M, Radford AN, Radford CA, Simpson SD, Slabbekoorn H, Staaterman E, Van Opzeeland IC, Winderen J, Zhang X, Juanes F |date=February 2021 |title=The soundscape of the Anthropocene ocean |url=https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/53691/1/DuarteEtAl_2021full.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=371 |issue=6529 |pages=eaba4658 |doi=10.1126/science.aba4658 |pmid=33542110 |s2cid=231808113 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510095454/https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/53691/1/DuarteEtAl_2021full.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-10 |access-date=2021-05-25}}</ref> The once-calm sea environment is now noisy and chaotic due to ships, oil drilling, sonar equipment, and seismic testing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Noise Pollution {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/noise-pollution |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> The principal anthropogenic noise sources come from merchant ships, naval sonar operations, underwater explosions (nuclear), and seismic exploration by oil and gas industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weilgart |first1=L.S. |date=November 2007 |title=The impacts of anthropogenic ocean noise on cetaceans and implications for management |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=85 |issue=11 |pages=1091–1116 |doi=10.1139/z07-101|bibcode=2007CaJZ...85.1091W }}</ref>

Cargo ships generate high levels of noise due to propellers and diesel engines.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Arveson PT, Vendittis DJ |date=January 2000 |title=Radiated noise characteristics of a modern cargo ship |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=118–129 |bibcode=2000ASAJ..107..118A |doi=10.1121/1.428344 |pmid=10641625}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=McKenna MF, Ross D, Wiggins SM, Hildebrand JA |year=2011 |title=Measurements of radiated underwater noise from modern merchant ships relevant to noise impacts on marine mammals |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=129 |issue=4 |page=2368 |bibcode=2011ASAJ..129.2368M |doi=10.1121/1.3587665}}</ref> This noise pollution significantly raises the low-frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wenz |first=Gordon M |year=1962 |title=Acoustic Ambient Noise in the Ocean: Spectra and Sources |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=1936–1956 |bibcode=1962ASAJ...34.1936W |doi=10.1121/1.1909155}}</ref> Animals such as whales that depend on sound for communication can be affected by this noise in various ways. Higher ambient noise levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which is called the [[Lombard effect]]. Researchers have found that [[Humpback whale|humpback whales]]' song lengths were longer when low-frequency sonar was active nearby.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fristrup KM, Hatch LT, Clark CW |date=June 2003 |title=Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=3411–3424 |bibcode=2003ASAJ..113.3411F |doi=10.1121/1.1573637 |pmid=12822811}}</ref>

Underwater noise pollution is not only limited to oceans, and can occur in freshwater environments as well. Noise pollution has been detected in the Yangtze River, and has resulted in the endangerment of [[Yangtze finless porpoise]]s.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang ZT, Akamatsu T, Duan PX, Zhou L, Yuan J, Li J, Lei PY, Chen YW, Yang YN, Wang KX, Wang D |date=July 2020 |title=Underwater noise pollution in China's Yangtze River critically endangers Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis) |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=262 |pages=114310 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114310 |pmid=32155559 |bibcode=2020EPoll.26214310W |s2cid=212667318}}</ref> A study conducted on noise pollution in the Yangtze River suggested that the elevated levels of noise pollution altered the temporal hearing threshold of the finless porpoises and posed a significant threat to their survival.<ref name=":03" />

==== Coral Reefs ====
Noise pollution has emerged as a prominent stressor on [[coral reef]] ecosystems. Coral reefs are among the most important ecosystems of the earth, as well as they are of great importance to several communities and cultures around the world, that depend on the reefs for the services they provide, such as fishing and tourism.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-97189-2 |title=Coral Reefs of the Western Pacific Ocean in a Changing Anthropocene |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-97188-5 |editor-last=Zhang |editor-first=Jing |series=Coral Reefs of the World |volume=14 |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-97189-2 |s2cid=252113958 |editor-last2=Yeemin |editor-first2=Thamasak |editor-last3=Morrison |editor-first3=R. John |editor-last4=Hong |editor-first4=Gi Hoon}}</ref> The reefs contribute substantially to global [[biodiversity]] and productivity, and is a critical part of the support systems of the earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sheppard |first1=Charles |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/32664 |title=The Biology of Coral Reefs |last2=Davy |first2=Simon |last3=Pilling |first3=Graham |last4=Graham |first4=Nicholas |date=2017-11-23 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-182942-0 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198787341.001.0001}}</ref> Anthropogenic noise, originating from human activities, has increased underwater noise in the natural sound environment of the reefs.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Ferrier-Pagès |first1=Christine |last2=Leal |first2=Miguel C. |last3=Calado |first3=Ricardo |last4=Schmid |first4=Dominik W. |last5=Bertucci |first5=Frédéric |last6=Lecchini |first6=David |last7=Allemand |first7=Denis |date=2021-04-01 |title=Noise pollution on coral reefs? — A yet underestimated threat to coral reef communities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21001636 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=165 |pages=112129 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112129 |pmid=33588103 |bibcode=2021MarPB.16512129F |s2cid=231935852 |issn=0025-326X}}</ref> The preeminent sources of noise pollution on coral reefs are boat and ship activities.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal |last=Hildebrand |first=Ja |date=2009-12-03 |title=Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean |url=http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v395/p5-20/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=395 |pages=5–20 |doi=10.3354/meps08353 |bibcode=2009MEPS..395....5H |issn=0171-8630|doi-access=free }}</ref> The sound created by the crossing of boats and ships overlaps with the natural sounds of the coral reef organisms. This pollution impacts the various organisms inhabiting the coral reefs in different ways, and ultimately damages the capabilities of the reef and may cause permanent deterioration.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=International Coral Reef Initiative |date=15 December 2023 |title=Noise pollution in coral reefs |url=https://www.icriforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Underwater-noise-BRIEF-web-pages.pdf |website=icriforum.org}}</ref>

Healthy coral reefs are naturally noisy, consisting of the sounds of breaking waves and tumbling rocks, as well as the sounds produced by fish and other organisms. [[Marine organisms]] use sound for purposes such as navigating, foraging, communicating, and reproductive activities.<ref name=":20" /> The sensitivity and range of hearing varies across different organisms within the coral reef ecosystem. Among coral reef fish, sound detection and generation can span from 1&nbsp;Hz to 200&nbsp;kHz, while their hearing abilities encompasses frequencies within the range of 100&nbsp;Hz to 1&nbsp;kHz.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Slabbekoorn |first1=Hans |last2=Bouton |first2=Niels |last3=van Opzeeland |first3=Ilse |last4=Coers |first4=Aukje |last5=ten Cate |first5=Carel |last6=Popper |first6=Arthur N. |date=July 2010 |title=A noisy spring: the impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=419–427 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005 |pmid=20483503 |bibcode=2010TEcoE..25..419S |issn=0169-5347}}</ref> Several different types of anthropogenic noise are at the same frequencies as marine organisms in coral reefs use for navigation, communication, and other purposes, which disturbs the natural sound environment of the coral reefs.<ref name=":19" />

Anthropogenic sources of noise are generated by a range of different human activities, such as [[shipping]], oil and gas exploration and fishing. The principal cause of noise pollution on coral reefs is boat and ship activities. The use of smaller motorboats, for purposes as fishing or tourism within coral reef areas, and larger vessels, such as [[cargo ship]]s transporting goods, significantly amplifies disturbances to the natural marine soundscape. Noise from shipping and small boats is at the same frequency as sounds generated by marine organisms, and therefore acts as a disruptive element in the sound environment of coral reefs.<ref name=":19" /> Both longer-term and acute effects have been documented on coral reefs organisms after exposure to noise pollution.<ref name=":20" />

Anthropogenic noise is essentially a persistent stressor on coral reefs and its inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dinh |first1=Jason P. |last2=Suca |first2=Justin J. |last3=Lillis |first3=Ashlee |last4=Apprill |first4=Amy |last5=Llopiz |first5=Joel K. |last6=Mooney |first6=T. Aran |date=2018-11-01 |title=Multiscale spatio-temporal patterns of boat noise on U.S. Virgin Island coral reefs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X18306489 |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=136 |pages=282–290 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.009 |pmid=30509809 |bibcode=2018MarPB.136..282D |hdl=1912/10781 |s2cid=54554531 |issn=0025-326X|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Both temporary and permanent noise pollution has been found to induce changes in the distributional, physiological, and behavioral patterns of coral reef organisms. Some of the observed changes has been compromised hearing, increased heart rate in [[Coral reef fish|coral fish]] and a reduction in the number of [[larva]]e reaching their settlement areas. Ultimately, the outcome of such changes results in reduced survival rates and altered patterns which potentially alters the entirety of the reef ecosystem.<ref name=":20" />

The white [[damselfish]], a coral reef fish, has been found to have a compromised anti-predator behavior as a result to ship noise. The distraction of anthropogenic noise is possibly distracting the fish, and thereby affecting the escape response and routine swimming of the coral fish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jimenez |first1=Laura Velasquez |last2=Fakan |first2=Eric P. |last3=McCormick |first3=Mark I. |date=2020-07-23 |title=Vessel noise affects routine swimming and escape response of a coral reef fish |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=e0235742 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235742 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7377389 |pmid=32702032 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535742V |doi-access=free }}</ref> A study conducted on species of coral larvae, which are crucial for the expansion of coral reefs, discovered that the larvae oriented towards the sound of healthy reefs. The noise created by anthropogenic activities could mask this soundscape, hindering the larvae from swimming towards the reef.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vermeij |first1=Mark J. A. |last2=Marhaver |first2=Kristen L. |last3=Huijbers |first3=Chantal M. |last4=Nagelkerken |first4=Ivan |last5=Simpson |first5=Stephen D. |date=2010-05-14 |title=Coral Larvae Move toward Reef Sounds |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=e10660 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0010660 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2871043 |pmid=20498831 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...510660V |doi-access=free }}</ref> Noise pollution ultimately poses a threat to the behavioral patterns of several coral organisms.<ref name=":18" />

=== Impacts on communication ===
Terrestrial anthropogenic noise affects the acoustic communications in grasshoppers while producing sound to attract a mate. The fitness and reproductive success of a grasshopper is dependent on its ability to attract a mating partner. Male ''[[Chorthippus biguttulus|Corthippus biguttulus]]'' grasshoppers attract females by using [[stridulation]] to produce courtship songs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Lampe U, Schmoll T, Franzke A, Reinhold K |date= December 2012 | veditors = Patek S |title=Staying tuned: grasshoppers from noisy roadside habitats produce courtship signals with elevated frequency components |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=26|issue=6|pages=1348–1354|doi=10.1111/1365-2435.12000|bibcode= 2012FuEco..26.1348L |doi-access=free }}</ref> The females produce [[Acoustics|acoustic signals]] that are shorter and primarily low frequency and amplitude, in response to the male's song. Research has found that this species of grasshopper changes its mating call in response to loud traffic noise. Lampe and Schmoll (2012) found that male grasshoppers from quiet habitats have a local frequency maximum of about 7319&nbsp;Hz.<ref name=":2" />

In contrast, male grasshoppers exposed to loud traffic noise can create signals with a higher local frequency maximum of 7622&nbsp;Hz. The higher frequencies are produced by the grasshoppers to prevent background noise from drowning out their signals. This information reveals that anthropogenic noise disturbs the acoustic signals produced by insects for communication.<ref name=":2" /> Similar processes of behavior perturbation, behavioral plasticity, and population level shifts in response to noise likely occur in sound-producing marine invertebrates, but more experimental research is needed.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020" /><ref name="Roberts_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts L, Elliott M | title = Good or bad vibrations? Impacts of anthropogenic vibration on the marine epibenthos | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 595 | pages = 255–268 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28384581 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.117 | bibcode = 2017ScTEn.595..255R }}</ref>

===Impacts on development===
Boat-noise has been shown to affect the embryonic development and fitness of the sea hare ''Stylocheilus striatus''.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nedelec SL, Radford AN, Simpson SD, Nedelec B, Lecchini D, Mills SC | title = Anthropogenic noise playback impairs embryonic development and increases mortality in a marine invertebrate | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 5891 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25080997 | pmc = 4118180 | doi = 10.1038/srep05891 | bibcode = 2014NatSR...4.5891N }}</ref> Anthropogenic noise can alter conditions in the environment that have a negative effect on invertebrate survival. Although embryos can adapt to normal changes in their environment, evidence suggests they are not well adapted to endure the negative effects of noise pollution. Studies have been conducted on the sea hare to determine the effects of boat noise on the early stages of life and the development of embryos. Researchers have studied sea hares from the lagoon of [[Moorea Island]], French Polynesia. In the study, recordings of boat noise were made by using a hydrophone.<ref name=":3" /> In addition, recordings of ambient noise were made that did not contain boat noise. In contrast to ambient noise playbacks, mollusks exposed to boat noise playbacks had a 21% reduction in embryonic development. Additionally, newly hatched larvae experienced an increased mortality rate of 22% when exposed to boat noise playbacks.<ref name=":3" />

===Impacts on ecosystem===
Anthropogenic noise can have negative effects on invertebrates that aid in controlling environmental processes that are crucial to the ecosystem. There are a variety of natural underwater sounds produced by waves in coastal and shelf habitats, and biotic communication signals that do not negatively impact the ecosystem. The changes in behavior of invertebrates vary depending on the type of anthropogenic noise and is similar to natural noisescapes.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solan M, Hauton C, Godbold JA, Wood CL, Leighton TG, White P | title = Anthropogenic sources of underwater sound can modify how sediment-dwelling invertebrates mediate ecosystem properties | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 20540 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26847483 | pmc = 4742813 | doi = 10.1038/srep20540 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...620540S }}</ref>

Experiments have examined the behavior and physiology of the clam (''Ruditapes philippinarum''), the decapod (''Nephrops norvegicus''), and the brittlestar (''Amphiura filiformis'') that are affected by sounds resembling shipping and building noises.<ref name=":4" /> The three invertebrates in the experiment were exposed to continuous broadband noise and impulsive broadband noise. The anthropogenic noise impeded the bioirrigation and burying behavior of ''Nephrops norvegicus''. In addition, the decapod exhibited a reduction in movement. ''[[Ruditapes philippinarum]]'' experienced stress which caused a reduction in surface relocation.<ref name=":4" /> The anthropogenic noise caused the clams to close their valves and relocate to an area above the interface of the sediment-water. This response inhibits the clam from mixing the top layer of the sediment profile and hinders suspension feeding. Sound causes ''[[Amphiura filiformis]]'' to experience changes in physiological processes which results in irregularity of bioturbation behavior.<ref name=":4" />

These invertebrates play an important role in transporting substances for benthic nutrient cycling.<ref name=":4" /> As a result, ecosystems are negatively impacted when species cannot perform natural behaviors in their environment. Locations with shipping lanes, dredging, or commercial harbors are known as continuous broadband sound. Pile-driving, and construction are sources that exhibit impulsive broadband noise. The different types of broadband noise have different effects on the varying species of invertebrates and how they behave in their environment.<ref name=":4" />

Another study found that the valve closures in the Pacific oyster ''Magallana gigas'' was a behavioral response to varying degrees of acoustic amplitude levels and noise frequencies.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Charifi M, Sow M, Ciret P, Benomar S, Massabuau JC | title = The sense of hearing in the Pacific oyster, Magallana gigas | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 12 | issue = 10 | pages = e0185353 | date = 2017-10-25 | pmid = 29069092 | pmc = 5656301 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0185353 | veditors = Fernández Robledo JS | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1285353C  }}</ref> Oysters perceive near-field sound vibrations by utilizing statocysts. In addition, they have superficial receptors that detect variations in water pressure. Sound pressure waves from shipping can be produced below 200&nbsp;Hz. Pile driving generates noise between 20 and 1000&nbsp;Hz. In addition, large explosions can create frequencies ranging from 10 to 200&nbsp;Hz. ''[[Marginellona gigas|M. gigas]]'' can detect these noise sources because their sensory system can detect sound in the 10 to < 1000&nbsp;Hz range.<ref name=":5" />

The anthropogenic noise produced by human activity has been shown to negatively impact oysters.<ref name=":5" /> Studies have revealed that wide and relaxed valves are indicative of healthy oysters. The oysters are stressed when they do not open their valves as frequently in response to environmental noise. This provides support that the oysters detect noise at low acoustic energy levels.<ref name=":5" /> While we generally understand that marine noise pollution influences charismatic megafauna like whales and dolphins, understanding&nbsp; how invertebrates like oysters perceive and respond to human generated sound can provide further insight about the effects of anthropogenic noise on the larger ecosystem.<ref name=":5" /> The aquatic ecosystems are known to use sound to navigate, find food, and protect themselves. In 2020, one of the worst mass stranding of whales occurred in Australia. Experts suggest that noise pollution plays a major role in the mass stranding of whales.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Noise pollution affects dolphins' ability to communicate: What new study says |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/dolphins-coordinate-human-noise-pollution-study-8385113/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Noise pollution has also altered avian communities and diversity. Anthropogenic noises have a similar effect on bird population as seen in marine ecosystems, where noises reduce reproductive success; cannot detect predators due to interferences of anthropogenic noises, minimize nesting areas, increase stress response, and [[species abundance]]s and richness declining.<ref name="Francis-2009" /><ref name="Weilgart-2008" /> Certain avian species are more sensitive to noises compared to others, resulting in highly-sensitive birds migrating to less disturbed habitats. There has also been evidence of indirect positive effects of anthropogenic noises on avian populations. It was found that nesting bird predators, such as the western scrub-jay (''[[California scrub jay|Aphelocoma californica]]''), were uncommon in noisy environments (western scrub-jay are sensitive to noise). Therefore, reproductive success for nesting prey communities was higher due to the lack of predators.<ref name="Francis-2009" /> Noise pollution can alter the distribution and abundance of prey species, which can then impact predator populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Jesse R. |last2= Crooks |first2=Kevin R. |last3=Fristrup |first3=Kurt M. |date=2010-03-01 |title=The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms |url= https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(09)00261-4 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=English |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=180–189 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.002 |issn=0169-5347 |pmid=19762112|bibcode=2010TEcoE..25..180B }}</ref>