Editing Nepal (section)

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Nepal|Geology of Nepal}}
[[File:Nepal topo en.jpg|thumb|A topographic map of Nepal|upright=1.3]]
Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, about {{convert|800|km|mi|-1}} long and {{convert|200|km|mi|-1}} wide, with an area of {{convert|147516|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}. It lies between latitudes [[26th parallel north|26°]] and [[31st parallel north|31°N]], and longitudes [[80th meridian east|80°]] and [[89th meridian east|89°E]]. Nepal's defining geological processes began 75&nbsp;million years ago when the Indian plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a north-eastward [[Plate tectonics|drift]] caused by [[seafloor spreading]] to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.<ref name=ali>{{cite journal |last1=Ali|first1=J. R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=J. C.|year=2005|title=Greater India|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=170–173|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A |issn = 0012-8252 }}</ref> Simultaneously, the vast [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyn]] [[oceanic crust]], to its northeast, began to [[subduction|subduct]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]].<ref name=ali/> These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], both created the [[Indian Ocean]] and caused the Indian [[continental crust]] eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=ali/> The rising barriers blocked the paths of rivers creating large lakes, which only broke through as late as 100,000 years ago, creating fertile valleys in the middle hills like the Kathmandu Valley. In the western region, rivers which were too strong to be hampered, cut some of the world's deepest gorges.<ref name=Jwhelpton/> Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]] that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dikshit|first1=K. R.|last2=Schwartzberg|first2=Joseph E.|author2-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg|title=India: Land|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|pages=1–29|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508084916/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|archive-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and now constitutes the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prakash|first1=B.|last2=Kumar|first2=S.|last3=Rao|first3=M. S.|last4=Giri|first4=S. C.|year=2000|title=Holocene Tectonic Movements and Stress Field in the Western Gangetic Plains|journal=Current Science|volume=79|issue=4|pages=438–449|url=https://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504075319/https://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal lies almost completely within this collision zone, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the {{Convert|2400|km|abbr=on|adj=on}}-long Himalayas,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Beek |first1=Peter |first2=Xavier |last2=Robert |first3=Jean-Louis |last3=Mugnier |first4=Matthias |last4=Bernet |first5=Pascale |last5=Huyghe |first6=Erika |last6=Labrin |title=Late Miocene- Recent Exhumation of the Central Himalaya and Recycling in the Foreland Basin Assessed by Apatite Fission-Track Thermochronology of Siwalik Sediments, Nepal |journal=Basin Research |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=413–434 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x |bibcode=2006BasR...18..413V |s2cid=10446424 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00137089/file/vdbeek_et_al_BR_2006.pdf |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229225701/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00137089/file/vdbeek_et_al_BR_2006.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=Antoine |first2=Francois |last2=Jouanne |first3=Riad |last3=Hassani |first4=Jean Louis |last4=Mugnier |title=Modelling the Spatial Distribution of Present day Deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical is the Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal? |journal=Geophys. J. Int. |volume=156 |issue=1 |pages=94–114 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02038.x |bibcode=2004GeoJI.156...94B |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00101828/file/156-1-94.pdf |access-date=10 February 2024 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429065048/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00101828/file/156-1-94.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last2=Bilham |first2=Roger |first1=Michael |last1=Jackson |title=Constraints on Himalayan Deformation inferred from Vertical Velocity Fields in Nepal and Tibet |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=99 |issue=B7 |pages=897–912 |year=1994 |doi=10.1029/94JB00714 |bibcode=1994JGR....9913897J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chamlagain |first1=Deepak |first2=Daigoro |last2=Hayashi |title=Neotectonic Fault Analysis by 2D Finite Element Modeling for Studying the Himalayan Fold and Thrust belt in Nepal |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=29 |issue=2–3 |pages=473–489 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.10.016 |bibcode=2007JAESc..29..473C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=F. |last1=Jouanne |display-authors=1 |first2=J. L. |last2=Mugnier |first3=J. F. |last3=Gamond |first4=P. |last4=Le Fort |first5=M. R. |last5=Pandey |first6=L. |last6=Bollinger |first7=M. |last7=Flouzat |first8=J. P. |last8=Avouac |title=Current Shortening Across the Himalayas of Nepal |journal=Geophys. J. Int. |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02180.x |bibcode=2004GeoJI.157....1J |doi-access=free |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/21680/1/Jouanne2004p1_Geophys_Journ_Int.pdf |access-date=13 January 2024 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428201714/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/21680/1/Jouanne2004p1_Geophys_Journ_Int.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=M. R. |first2=R. P. |last2=Tandukar |first3=J. P. |last3=Avouac |first4=J. |last4=Vergne |first5=Th. |last5=Heritier |title=Seismotectonics of the Nepal Himalaya from a Local Seismic Network |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=17 |issue=5–6 |pages=703–712 |year=1999 |doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00034-6 |bibcode=1999JAESc..17..703P }}</ref> with a small strip of southernmost Nepal stretching into the Indo-Gangetic plain and two districts in the northwest stretching up to the Tibetan plateau.<ref name=Jwhelpton>{{Cite book |last=Whelpton |first=John |title=A History of Nepal |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-80470-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnepal00whel }}</ref>

[[File:Everest kalapatthar crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mount Everest]], the highest peak on earth, lies on the Nepal–China border.]]
Nepal is divided into three principal physiographic belts known as ''[[himalayas|Himal]]''–''[[Lower Himalayan Range|Pahad]]''–''[[Terai]]''.{{efn|This trichotomy is a prominent feature of Nepali discourse and is represented in the [[Emblem of Nepal]], with blue and white peaks signifying ''Himal'', green hills below them signifying ''Pahad'' and the yellow strip at the bottom signifying the ''Terai'' belt.}} Himal is the mountain region containing snow and situated in the Great Himalayan Range; it makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world including {{convert|8848.86|m|ft|0}} height [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmāthā'' in Nepali) on the border with China. Seven other of the world's "[[eight-thousander]]s" are in Nepal or on its border with Tibet: [[Lhotse]], [[Makalu]], [[Cho Oyu]], [[Kangchenjunga]], [[Dhaulagiri]], [[Annapurna]] and [[Manaslu]]. Pahad is the mountain region that does not generally contain snow. The mountains vary from {{convert|800|to|4000|m|ft|-2}} in altitude, with progression from subtropical climates below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-2}} to alpine climates above {{convert|3600|m|ft|-2}}. The [[Lower Himalayan Range]], reaching {{convert|1500|to|3000|m|ft|-2}}, is the southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating to the north of this range. Population density is high in valleys but notably less above {{convert|2000|m|ft|-2}} and very low above {{convert|2500|m|ft|-2}}, where snow occasionally falls in winter. The southern lowland plains or ''Terai'' bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. Terai is the lowland region containing some hill ranges. The plains were formed and are fed by three major Himalayan rivers: the [[Koshi River|Koshi]], the [[Gandaki River|Narayani]], and the [[Ghaghara|Karnali]] as well as smaller rivers rising below the permanent snowline. This region has a subtropical to tropical climate. The outermost range of the foothills called [[Sivalik Hills]] or Churia Range, cresting at {{convert|700|to|1000|m|ft|-1}}, marks the limits of the Gangetic Plain. Broad, low valleys called [[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|Inner Terai Valleys]] ({{Lang|ne|Bhitri Tarai Upatyaka}}) lie north of these foothills in several places.
[[File:Köppen climate types of Nepal.svg|thumb|Köppen climate classification for Nepall|upright=1.3]]

The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at about {{Convert|50|mm|abbr=on}} per year.<ref>Bilham ''et al.'', 1998;{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}} Pandey ''et al.'', 1995.{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}}</ref> This makes Nepal an earthquake-prone zone, and periodic earthquakes that have devastating consequences present a significant hurdle to development.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Earthquake Monitoring & Research Center |url=https://www.seismonepal.gov.np/ |publisher=Nepal Department of Mines and Geology |access-date=1 July 2022 |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630045443/http://seismonepal.gov.np/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Erosion of the Himalayas is a very important source of sediment, which flows to the Indian Ocean.<ref>Summerfield & Hulton, 1994;{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}} Hay, 1998.{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}}</ref> Saptakoshi, in particular, carries a huge amount of silt out of Nepal but sees extreme drop in Gradient in [[Bihar]], causing severe floods and course changes, and is, therefore, known as the sorrow of Bihar. Severe flooding and landslides cause deaths and disease, destroy farmlands and cripple the transport infrastructure of the country, during the monsoon season each year.

Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-2}}, the [[temperate]] zone {{convert|1200|to|2400|m|ft|-2}}, the cold zone {{convert|2400|to|3600|m|ft|-2}}, the subarctic zone {{convert|3600|to|4400|m|ft|-2}}, and the Arctic zone above {{convert|4400|m|ft|-2}}. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn, winter and spring. The Himalayas block cold winds from Central Asia in the winter and form the northern limits of the monsoon wind patterns.

=== Biodiversity ===
{{main|Wildlife of Nepal}}
{{See also|List of protected areas of Nepal|Community forestry in Nepal}}

[[File:Land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30&nbsp;m (2010) data.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|This land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30&nbsp;m (2010) data shows forest cover as the dominant type of land cover in Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Development of 2010 national land cover database for the Nepal |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |date=15 January 2015 |pages=82–90 |volume=148 |series=Land Cover/Land Use Change (LC/LUC) and Environmental Impacts in South Asia |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.047 |pmid=25181944 |first1=Kabir |last1=Uddin |first2=Him Lal |last2=Shrestha |first3=M. S. R. |last3=Murthy |first4=Birendra |last4=Bajracharya |first5=Basanta |last5=Shrestha |first6=Hammad |last6=Gilani |first7=Sudip |last7=Pradhan |first8=Bikash |last8=Dangol|bibcode=2015JEnvM.148...82U }}</ref>]]

Nepal contains a disproportionately large diversity of plants and animals, relative to its size.<ref name=wwf>{{cite web |url=https://www.wwfnepal.org/?206342/The-Status-of-Nepals-Mammals |title=The Status of Nepal's Mammals: The National Red List Series |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919212309/https://www.wwfnepal.org/?206342/The-Status-of-Nepals-Mammals |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=kindl/> Nepal, in its entirety, forms the western portion of the [[eastern Himalaya]]n biodiversity hotspot, with notable [[biocultural diversity]].<ref name="O'Neill_al2017">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.|last2=Badola |first2=H.K. |last3=Dhyani |first3=P. P. |last4=Rana |first4=S. K. |year=2017 |title=Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=21 |doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9 |pmid=28356115 |pmc=5372287 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal (60&nbsp;m from sea level in the Terai plains, to 8,848&nbsp;m [[Mount Everest]])<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jha |first=Sasinath |year=2008 |title=Status and Conservation of Lowland Terai Wetlands in Nepal |journal=Our Nature |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=67–77 |doi=10.3126/on.v6i1.1657 |issn=2091-2781 |doi-access=free}}</ref> result in a variety of [[biome]]s.<ref name=wwf/> The Eastern half of Nepal is richer in biodiversity as it receives more rain, compared to western parts, where [[arctic desert]]-type conditions are more common at higher elevations.<ref name=kindl>{{citation |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-1802-9_1 |chapter=An Overview of the Biodiversity in Nepal |title=Himalayan Biodiversity in the Changing World |pages=1–40 |year=2012 |last1=Paudel |first1=Prakash Kumar |last2=Bhattarai |first2=Bishnu Prasad |last3=Kindlmann |first3=Pavel |isbn=978-94-007-1801-2}}</ref> Nepal is a habitat for 4.0% of all [[Mammal|mammal species]], 8.9% of [[Bird|bird species]], 1.0% of [[Reptile|reptile species]], 2.5% of [[Amphibian|amphibian species]], 1.9% of [[Fish|fish species]], 3.7% of [[Butterfly|butterfly species]], 0.5% of [[Moth|moth species]] and 0.4% of [[Spider|spider species]].<ref name=kindl/> In its 35 forest-types and 118 ecosystems,<ref name=wwf/>{{efn|198 ecological types were first proposed in 1976, which was further revised and reduced to 118, which was further reduced by IUCN to 59 in 1998, which was further reduced to 36 in 2002. As this issue has yet to be settled, the 35-forest-type classification is generally preferred to the ecological categorisation.<ref name=kindl/>}} Nepal harbours 2% of the [[Flowering plant|flowering plant species]], 3% of [[pteridophyte]]s and 6% of [[bryophyte]]s.<ref name=kindl/>

[[File:Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) 4.jpg|thumb|The [[greater one-horned rhinoceros]] roams the sub-tropical grasslands of the Terai plains.]]
Nepal's [[forest cover]] is {{convert|59624|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, 40.36% of the country's total land area, with an additional 4.38% of [[Shrubland|scrubland]], for a total forested area of 44.74%, an increase of 5% since the turn of the millennium.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/|title=Forest cover has increased in Nepal of late |date=13 May 2016 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824161239/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/ |archive-date=24 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.23/10, ranking it 45th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M. |display-authors=1 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the southern plains, [[Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands]] ecoregion contains some of the world's tallest grasses as well as ''[[Shorea robusta|Sal]]'' forests, [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical evergreen forests]] and tropical riverine deciduous forests.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W0OAQAAMAAJ |title=Forests of Nepal |last=Stainton |first=J. D. A. |date=1972 |publisher=Hafner Publishing Company |isbn=9780028527000 |language=en |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407102435/https://books.google.com/books?id=-W0OAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the lower hills (700&nbsp;m – 2,000&nbsp;m), [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests|subtropical]] and [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|temperate deciduous mixed forests]] containing mostly S''al'' (in the lower altitudes), ''[[Schima wallichii|Chilaune]]'' and ''[[Castanopsis indica|Katus]]'', as well as [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|subtropical pine forest]] dominated by [[chir pine]] are common. The middle hills (2,000&nbsp;m – 3,000&nbsp;m) are dominated by [[oak]] and [[rhododendron]]. [[Temperate coniferous forest|Subalpine coniferous forests]] cover the 3,000&nbsp;m to 3,500&nbsp;m range, dominated by oak (particularly in the west), [[Abies spectabilis|Eastern Himalayan fir]], [[Pinus wallichiana|Himalayan pine]] and [[Tsuga dumosa|Himalayan hemlock]]; rhododendron is common as well. Above 3,500&nbsp;m in the west and 4,000&nbsp;m in the east, coniferous trees give way to rhododendron-dominated [[Alpine tundra|alpine shrubs and meadows]].<ref name=kindl/>

Among the notable trees, are the [[astringent]] ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in traditional [[herbal medicine]],<ref name="Goyal2006">{{cite book|last=Goyal|first=Anupam|title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567710-2|page=295|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329121603/https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295|url-status=live}} Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal ''neem'' tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)"</ref> and the luxuriant ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', or ''peepal'',<ref name="Hughes2013">{{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Julie E. |title=Animal Kingdoms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07480-4 |page=106 |quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}}</ref> which is displayed on the ancient seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]],<ref name="AmeriCostello2018">{{cite book |last1=Ameri|first1=Marta|last2=Costello |first2=Sarah Kielt |last3=Jamison |first3=Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer |title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |year=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-17351-3 |pages=156–7}} Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbor and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."</ref> and under which [[Gautama Buddha|Gautam Buddha]] is recorded in the [[Pali canon]] to have sought enlightenment.<ref name="Gwynne2011">{{cite book |author=Paul Gwynne |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |page=358 |quote=The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'') }}</ref>

[[File:Lophophorus impejanus Zoo DU 2.jpg|upright|thumb|The [[Himalayan monal]] ({{lang|ne|Danphe}}), the national bird of Nepal,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/ |title=National bird on verge of disappearance |date=16 April 2016 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121001/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> nests high in the Himalayas.]]
Most of the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest of the lower Himalayan region is descended from the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyan]] [[Tertiary]] flora.<ref name=sun>{{cite journal |last=Sun |first=Hang |year=2002 |title=Tethys retreat and Himalayas-Hengduanshan Mountains uplift and their significance on the origin and development of the sino-himalayan elements and alpine flora |url=https://europepmc.org/abstract/cba/371633 |journal=Acta Botanica Yunnanica |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |issn=0253-2700 |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120958/https://europepmc.org/abstract/cba/371633 |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> As the [[Indian Plate]] collided with [[Eurasia]] forming and raising the Himalayas, the [[arid]] and semi-arid [[Mediterranean flora]] was pushed up and adapted to the more alpine climate over the next 40–50&nbsp;million years.<ref name=sun/><ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html |title=The Himalayas: Two continents collide |author=USGS |date=5 May 1999|access-date=26 August 2019|author-link=United States Geological Survey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117130339/https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Eastern Himalaya|Himalayan biodiversity hotspot]] was the site of mass exchange and intermingling of the Indian and Eurasian species in the [[neogene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Karanth |first=K. P. |date=25 March 2006 |title=Out-of-India Gondwanan Origin of Some Tropical Asian Biota |journal=[[Current Science]] |volume=90 |issue=6 |pages=789–792 |url=https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf |access-date=18 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223533/https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> One mammal species ([[Himalayan field mouse]]), two each of bird and reptile species, nine amphibia, eight fish and 29 butterfly species are endemic to Nepal.<ref name=kindl/>{{efn|According to the 2019 IUCN red list, two species of mammals, one bird species and three amphibian species are endemic to Nepal.<ref>{{cite book |title=IUCN Red List version 2019–21 |author=IUCN |chapter=Table 8a: Total endemic and threatened endemic species in each country (totals by taxonomic group): VERTEBRATES |chapter-url=https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_8a.pdf |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120951/https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_8a.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

Nepal contains 107 [[IUCN]]-designated [[threatened species]], 88 of them animal species, 18 plant species and one species of "fungi or protist" group.<ref>{{cite book|title=IUCN Red List version 2019-2|chapter=Table 5: Threatened species in each country (totals by taxonomic group)|chapter-url=https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_5.pdf|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120951/https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_5.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> These include the [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[Bengal tiger]], the [[red panda]], the [[Asiatic elephant]], the [[Himalayan musk deer]], the [[wild water buffalo]] and the [[South Asian river dolphin]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Red List of Mammal Species of Nepal |url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/red_list_poster_low.jpg |format=jpg |author=[[IUCN]] Nepal |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308111349/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/red_list_poster_low.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref> as well as the [[critically endangered]] [[gharial]], the [[Bengal florican]],<ref name="wwf"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Bengal Florican Conservation Action Plan |author=Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal |url=https://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56 |via=birdlifenepal.org |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819192112/https://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[white-rumped vulture]], which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.<ref name=thtvul>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/ |title=Conservation of white-rumped vultures in progress in Nepal |date=16 March 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121112/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered [[Wildlife of Nepal|Nepali wildlife]]. In response, the system of [[Protected areas of Nepal|national parks and protected areas]], first established in 1973 with the enactment of ''National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/ |title=Chitwan National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/ |archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> was substantially expanded. ''Vulture restaurants''<ref name=kindl/> coupled with a ban on veterinary usage of diclofenac has seen a rise in the number of white-rumped vultures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/ |title=Mahottari declared 58th diclofenac-free district |date=8 August 2017 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=thtvul/> The [[Community forestry in Nepal|community forestry programme]] which has seen a third of the country's population directly participate in managing a quarter of the total forested area has helped the local economies while reducing [[human-wildlife conflict]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|title=Community forest value untapped|date=26 September 2012|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718195507/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|archive-date=18 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ojha |first1=Hemant |last2=Persha |first2=Lauren |last3=Chhatre |first3=Ashwini |date=November 2009 |title=Community Forestry in Nepal: A Policy Innovation for Local Livelihoods |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/16969/filename/16970.pdf |publisher=International food policy research institute |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224085327/http://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/16969/filename/16970.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The breeding programmes<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/ |title=The Terai Arc Landscape Project (TAL) – Gharial Breeding Centre |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121004/https://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/|archive-date=26 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> coupled with community-assisted military patrols,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/ |title='Joint Patrol' for wildlife conservation in CNP |date=22 March 2018 |newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]] |language=en-US |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and a crackdown on poaching and smuggling, has seen poaching of critically endangered tigers and elephants as well as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] rhinos, among others, go down to effectively zero, and their numbers have steadily increased.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant |title=Nepal celebrates 'zero poaching year' for rhino, tiger and elephant |date=14 March 2014 |publisher=IUCN |language=en |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122073025/https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant |archive-date=22 November 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has ten [[national park]]s, three [[wildlife reserves]], one [[Game reserve|hunting reserve]], three [[Conservation Area]]s and eleven [[buffer zone]]s, covering a total area of {{convert|28959.67|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, or 19.67% of the total land area,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNksAQAAMAAJ |title=Nepal biodiversity resource book: Protected areas, Ramsar sites, and World Heritage sites |author=Nepalnature.com (Organization) |author2=<nowiki>International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal</nowiki> |author3=<nowiki>Nepal Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology</nowiki> |chapter=Protected Areas of Nepal |page=41 |date=1 October 2007 |publisher=International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development |isbn=9789291150335 |language=en |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818161837/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNksAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> while ten [[wetland]]s are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal |title=Nepal |publisher=Ramsar |access-date=25 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708074016/https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal |archive-date=8 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal&nbsp;has consistently been ranked as&nbsp;one of the most polluted countries in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/sacred-rivers-religion-nepal-kathmandu-trending-news-eb979fe5f88881b5273ad8bcd63dd3f2 | title=Nepal's holy Bagmati River choked with black sewage, trash | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=17 August 2022 | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=12 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712141721/https://apnews.com/article/sacred-rivers-religion-nepal-kathmandu-trending-news-eb979fe5f88881b5273ad8bcd63dd3f2 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2020/10/21/one-more-report-ranks-nepal-among-most-polluted-countries-in-the-world | title=One more report ranks Nepal among most polluted countries in the world | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708162129/https://kathmandupost.com/climate-environment/2020/10/21/one-more-report-ranks-nepal-among-most-polluted-countries-in-the-world | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/urban-health-initiative/pilot-projects/kathmandu | title=WHO: Kathmandu, Nepal | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=9 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709052505/https://www.who.int/initiatives/urban-health-initiative/pilot-projects/kathmandu | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/21/averting-an-air-pollution-disaster-in-south-asia/ | title=Averting an air pollution disaster in South Asia | date=21 April 2023 | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=23 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123044919/http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2023/04/21/averting-an-air-pollution-disaster-in-south-asia/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/trash-and-overcrowding-top-world/ | title=Trash and Overcrowding at the Top of the World | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=25 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425230636/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/trash-and-overcrowding-top-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/blog/very-air-we-breathe | title=The very air we breathe &#124; UNICEF Nepal | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=8 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708163946/https://www.unicef.org/nepal/blog/very-air-we-breathe | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2024/04/26/air-pollution-takes-its-toll-on-nepal-s-tourism-capital | title=Air pollution takes its toll on Nepal's tourism capital | access-date=8 May 2024 | archive-date=8 May 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508192302/https://kathmandupost.com/money/2024/04/26/air-pollution-takes-its-toll-on-nepal-s-tourism-capital | url-status=live }}</ref>