Editing Mount Kilimanjaro (section)

== Human history ==

===Chagga states===
Kilimanjaro is attested to in numerous stories by the people who live in East Africa. The [[Chagga people|Chagga]], who traditionally lived on the southern and eastern slopes of the mountain in sovereign [[Chagga states]], tell how a man named Tone once provoked a god, Ruwa, to bring famine upon the land. The people became angry at Tone, forcing him to flee. Nobody wanted to protect him but a solitary dweller who had stones that turned miraculously into cattle. The dweller bid that Tone never open the stable of the cattle. When Tone did not heed the warning and the cattle escaped, Tone followed them, but the fleeing cattle threw up hills to run on, including Mawenzi and Kibo. Tone finally collapsed on Kibo, ending the pursuit.<ref name="legend">{{cite web|url=https://secretcompass.com/history-of-kilimanjaro/|title=THE GEOGRAPHY PEOPLE AND MYTHOLOGY OF AFRICA'S HIGHEST PEAK|website=www.secretcompass.com|date=2 January 2018|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105074204/https://secretcompass.com/history-of-kilimanjaro/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Another Chagga legend tells of ivory-filled graves of elephants on the mountain, and of a cow named Rayli that produces miraculous fat from her tail glands. If a man tries to steal such a gland but is too slow in his moves, Rayli will blast a powerful snort and blow the thief down onto the plain.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Dundas|title=Kilimanjaro and Its People: A History of Wachagga, their Laws, Customs and Legends, Together with Some|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4S2gRvx5X6sC&pg=PA36|date=12 November 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-24940-2|pages=84–88|access-date=4 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223211839/https://books.google.com/books?id=4S2gRvx5X6sC&pg=PA36|archive-date=23 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Early records===
The mountain may have been known to non-Africans since [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. Sailors' reports recorded by [[Ptolemy]] mention a "moon mountain" and a spring lake of the Nile, which may indicate Kilimanjaro, although available historical information does not allow differentiation among others in East Africa like [[Mount Kenya]], the mountains of [[Ethiopia]], the [[Virunga Mountains]], the [[Rwenzori Mountains]], and Kilimanjaro. Before Ptolemy, [[Aeschylus]] and [[Herodotus]] referred to "Egypt nurtured by the snows" and to a spring between two mountains, respectively. One of these mentions two tall mountains in the coastal regions with a valley with traces of fire between them. [[Martín Fernández de Enciso]], a Spanish traveler to [[Mombasa]] who obtained information about the interior from native caravans, said in his ''[[Suma de Geographia|Summa de Geografía]]'' (1519) that west of Mombasa "stands the Ethiopian Mount Olympus, which is exceedingly high, and beyond it are the Mountains of the Moon, in which are the sources of the Nile".<ref name="ShearsonHyland">{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02993444 | title=Ueber die Gesteine des Kilimandscharo und dessen Umgebung | author=J. Shearson Hyland | journal=Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen | year=1889 | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=203–268 | doi=10.1007/BF02993444 | bibcode=1889ZKMP...10..203S | s2cid=130584195 | language=de | via=Springer Link | access-date=2017-09-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123072157/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02993444 | archive-date=2018-01-23 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=meyer>{{cite journal | author=Hans Meyer | title=Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro | journal=Nature | volume=44 | issue=1129 | pages=149–150 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CsMhAAAAMAAJ | year=1891 | bibcode=1891Natur..44..149. | doi=10.1038/044149b0 | hdl=2027/hvd.32044009699778 | s2cid=45006599 | access-date=2016-10-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223234701/https://books.google.com/books?id=CsMhAAAAMAAJ | archive-date=2017-02-23 | url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|1–5}}<ref name="Burns2006">{{cite book | author=Cameron M. Burns | title=Kilimanjaro & East Africa: A Climbing and Trekking Guide | url=https://archive.org/details/kilimanjaroeasta0000burn | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/kilimanjaroeasta0000burn/page/114 114] | year=2006 | publisher=The Mountaineers Books | isbn=978-0-89886-604-9 | access-date=2016-10-04 }}</ref>{{rp|114}}

=== European exploration ===
[[File:Der-Kilimandscharo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A German illustration of Kilimanjaro in 1911]]

The German missionaries [[Johannes Rebmann]] of Mombasa and [[Johann Ludwig Krapf|Johann Krapf]] were the first Europeans known to have attempted to reach the mountain. According to English geographer [[Halford Mackinder]] and English explorer [[Harry Johnston]], Rebmann in 1848 was the first European to report the existence of Kilimanjaro.<ref>{{cite journal | last= Mackinder | first= Halford | author-link= Halford Mackinder | year= 1900 | title= A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa | journal= [[The Geographical Journal]] | volume= 15 | issue= 5 | pages= 453–476 | jstor= 1774261 | doi= 10.2307/1774261 | bibcode= 1900GeogJ..15..453M | url= https://zenodo.org/record/1449198 | access-date= 5 July 2019 | archive-date= 25 June 2024 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240625133608/https://zenodo.org/records/1449198 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jdaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA879 |title="Kilimanjaro", authored by Sir. H. H. Johnston, in ''The Twentieth Century'', published by Nineteenth Century and After, printed by Spottswoode, Ballantine & Co. Ltd., London, June 1916, volume 79, page 879 |access-date=2015-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919101108/https://books.google.com/books?id=3jdaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA879 |archive-date=2015-09-19 |url-status=live |year=1916 }}</ref> Hans Meyer has claimed that Rebmann first arrived in Africa in 1846 and quotes Rebmann's diary entry of 11 May 1848 as saying, {{blockquote|This morning, at 10 o'clock, we obtained a clearer view of the mountains of Jagga, the summit of one of which was covered by what looked like a beautiful white cloud. When I inquired as to the dazzling whiteness, the guide merely called it 'cold' and at once I knew it could be neither more nor less than snow.... Immediately I understood how to interpret the marvelous tales Dr. Krapf and I had heard at the coast, of a vast mountain of gold and silver in the far interior, the approach to which was guarded by evil spirits.<ref name=meyer/>{{rp|6}}}}

In August 1861, the Prussian officer Baron [[Karl Klaus von der Decken]] accompanied by English geologist Richard Thornton<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Geoscientist/Archive/August-2011/Mr-Thornton-I-presume|title=Mr Thornton, I presume?: Everyone has heard of Livingstone, but the name of Richard Thornton, Livingstone's geologist, has been completely forgotten. Richard Boak tells his sad story.|website=www.geolsoc.org.uk|date=August 2011|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=24 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224113947/https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Geoscientist/Archive/August-2011/Mr-Thornton-I-presume|url-status=live}}</ref> attempted to climb Kibo but "got no farther than {{convert|8200|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} owing to the inclemency of the weather".<ref name=meyer/>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4S2gRvx5X6sC&pg=PA20 | last=Dundas | first=Charles | year=2012 | orig-date=1924 | title=Kilimanjaro and its People: A History of the Wachagga, Their Laws, Customs and Legends, Together with Some Account of the Highest Mountain in Africa | publisher=Routledge | page=20 | access-date=4 November 2014 | isbn=978-1-136-24940-2 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223175440/https://books.google.com/books?id=4S2gRvx5X6sC&pg=PA20 | archive-date=23 February 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref> In December 1862, von der Decken tried a second time together with [[Otto Kersten]], reaching a height of {{convert|14000|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Verdcourt">{{cite web | url=http://www.conchsoc.org/collectors_east_africa/von-der-Decken-CC.php | title=Baron Carl Claus von der Decken – 1833–1865 – Collectors in East Africa – 31. | publisher=Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland | access-date=16 July 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716230316/http://www.conchsoc.org/collectors_east_africa/von-der-Decken-CC.php | archive-date=16 July 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-3-175 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|From the UK [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|National Archives]]]]

In August 1871, missionary Charles New became the "first European to reach the equatorial snows" on Kilimanjaro at an elevation of slightly more than {{convert|13000|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref name=meyer/>{{rp|11}} In June 1887, the Hungarian Count [[Sámuel Teleki (explorer)|Sámuel Teleki]] and the Austrian Lieutenant [[Ludwig von Höhnel]] made an attempt to climb the mountain. Approaching from the saddle between Mawenzi and Kibo, Höhnel stopped at {{convert|4950|m|ft|abbr=on}}, but Teleki continued until he reached the snow at {{convert|5300|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book | author=Ludwig Ritter von Höhnel | title=Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie: A Narrative of Count Samuel Teleki's Exploring & Hunting Expedition in Eastern Equatorial Africa in 1887 & 1888 | url=https://archive.org/details/discoverylakesr00hhgoog | year=1894 | publisher=Longmans, Green | page=[https://archive.org/details/discoverylakesr00hhgoog/page/n217 195]}}</ref> Later in 1887, the German geology professor Hans Meyer reached the lower edge of the ice cap on Kibo, where he was forced to turn back because he lacked the equipment needed to progress across the ice.<ref name="Stewart">{{cite book | author=Alex Stewart | title=Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, Practicalities and Trekking Routes to the 'Roof of Africa' | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOVR23e_Nm8C&pg=PA81 | date=9 September 2010 | publisher=Cicerone Press Limited | isbn=978-1-84965-071-7 | access-date=4 October 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224000528/https://books.google.com/books?id=MOVR23e_Nm8C&pg=PA81 | archive-date=24 February 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|81}} The following year, Meyer planned another attempt with [[Oscar Baumann]], a [[cartographer]], but the mission was aborted after the pair were held hostage and ransomed during the [[Abushiri Revolt]].<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} In the autumn of 1888, the American naturalist Abbott and the German explorer [[Otto Ehrenfried Ehlers]] approached the summit from the northwest. While Abbott turned back earlier, Ehlers at first claimed to have reached the summit rim, but after severe criticism of the claim, withdrew it.<ref name=meyer/>{{rp|17–19}}

In 1889, Meyer returned to Kilimanjaro with the Austrian mountaineer [[Ludwig Purtscheller]] for a third attempt.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} This attempt was based on the establishment of several campsites with food supplies so that multiple attempts at the top could be made without having to descend too far.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} Meyer and Purtscheller pushed to near the crater rim on 3 October but turned back exhausted from hacking footsteps in the icy slope.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} Three days later, they reached the highest summit, on the southern rim of the crater.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} They were the first to confirm that Kibo has a crater.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|82}} After descending to the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi, Meyer and Purtscheller attempted to climb the more technically challenging Mawenzi but could only reach the top of Klute Peak, a subsidiary peak, before retreating due to illness.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|84}} On 18 October, they reascended Kibo to enter and study the crater, cresting the rim at Hans Meyers Notch.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|84}} In total, Meyer and Purtscheller spent 16 days above {{convert|15000|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} during their expedition.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|84}} They were accompanied in their high camps by Mwini Amani of [[Pangani]], who cooked and supplied the sites with water and firewood.<ref name=meyer/>{{rp|135–186}}

==== First women climbers ====
In 1909, London-born Gertrude Benham attempted to reach the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. After her porters abandoned the expedition upon discovering the skeletons of previous climbers, Benham continued alone and reached the edge of Kibo Crater, later named Gilman’s Point. Adverse weather conditions, including heavy snow and fog, made navigation difficult, leading her to turn back.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The amazing story of the first woman on Kilimanjaro |url=https://altezzatravel.com/articles/first-woman-on-kilimanjaro |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Altezza Travel |language=en}}</ref> The first woman to successfully reach the summit of Kilimanjaro was Sheila MacDonald, who completed the ascent on September 30, 1927, at the age of 22.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-09-30 |title=Woman’s ascent of Kilimanjaro: London girl’s triumph – archive |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/sep/30/kilimanjaro-ascent-london-girl-tanzania-1927 |access-date=2025-02-14 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

===Modern===
{{quote box |bgcolor = #C3F4D1 | width = 28em |align = right
| quote = "We will light a candle on top of Mount Kilimanjaro which will shine beyond our borders, giving hope where there is despair, love where there is hate, and dignity where before there was only humiliation."
| source = — [[Julius Nyerere]], first president of [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and [[Tanzania]]{{Sfn|Bernbaum|2006|p=308}}
| style = padding:1.5em
| fontsize=85%}}
The first ascent of the highest summit of Mawenzi was made on 29 July 1912, by the German climbers [[Eduard Hans Oehler]] and [[Fritz Klute]], who named it Hans Meyer Peak. Oehler and Klute went on to make the third-ever ascent of Kibo, via the [[Drygalski Glacier (Tanzania)|Drygalski Glacier]], and descended via the Western Breach.<ref name="Stewart"/>{{rp|85}} The mountain lent its name to the 1914 [[Battle of Kilimanjaro]] during [[World War I]].

In 1989, the organizing committee of the 100-year celebration of the first ascent decided to award posthumous certificates to the African porter-guides who had accompanied Meyer and Purtscheller.<ref name="Lauwo">{{cite web | url=http://www.tzaffairs.org/1990/01/meyer-and-purtscheller-were-not-alone/ | title=Meyer And Purtscheller Were Not Alone | publisher=Tanzanian Affairs | date=1 January 1990 | access-date=16 July 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717060450/http://www.tzaffairs.org/1990/01/meyer-and-purtscheller-were-not-alone/ | archive-date=17 July 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> One person in pictures or documents of the 1889 expedition was thought to match a living inhabitant of [[Marangu]], Yohani Kinyala Lauwo.<ref name="Lauwo"/> Lauwo did not know his own age,<ref name="Lauwo"/> nor remember Meyer or Purtscheller. He did recall joining a Kilimanjaro expedition involving a Dutch doctor who lived near the mountain, and that he did not wear shoes during the climb.<ref name="Lauwo"/> Lauwo claimed that he had climbed the mountain three times before the beginning of [[World War I]].<ref name="Lauwo"/> The committee concluded that he had been a member of Meyer's team and therefore must have been born around 1871.<ref name="Lauwo"/> Lauwo died on 10 May 1996, 107 years after the first ascent. It is sometimes suggested that he was a co-first-ascendant of Kilimanjaro.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.anotherland.com/africa/hg-0004.htm | title=The Old Man of Mt. Kilimanjaro | publisher=Another Land | work=The Honeyguide: Summer 2000 | access-date=16 July 2015  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125114807/http://www.anotherland.com/africa/hg-0004.htm | archive-date=25 November 2014 }}</ref>