Editing Mongols (section)

=== Qing era ===
{{see also|Mongolia under Qing rule}}

[[File:Qing Dzungar wars.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|Map showing [[Dzungar–Qing Wars|wars]] between Qing dynasty and Dzungar Khanate]]
[[File:Langshining mao.jpg|thumb|A [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] soldier called [[Ayusi]] from the high Qing era, by [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)|Giuseppe Castiglione]], 1755]]
[[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.30|The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies. The fall of the [[Dzungar Khanate]]]]

The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan [[Gelugpa]] sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported [[Kagyu]] sect (Red Hat sect) of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to [[Tibet]]. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the [[Qing dynasty]] founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis [[noyan]] revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.

Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol [[Dzungar Khanate]]'s king [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan Boshugtu]] attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and [[Zanabazar]] (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.

In 1683 [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan]]'s armies reached [[Tashkent]] and the [[Syr Darya]] and crushed two armies of the [[Kazakhs]]. After that Galdan subjugated the [[Kyrgyz people|Black Khirgizs]] and ravaged the [[Fergana Valley]]. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took [[Taraz]], and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards.<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky – Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600–1771, p.211</ref> In 1687, he besieged the [[Turkistan (city)|City of Turkistan]]. Under the leadership of [[Abul Khair Khan]], the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |title=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=1 June 2010 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113054/http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Khalkha eventually submitted to [[Mongolia under Qing rule|Qing rule]] in 1691 by [[Zanabazar]]'s decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha ''de facto'' remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of [[Outer Mongolia]] until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of [[Khövsgöl Province]]. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war.

Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, [[Tibetans]], [[Kumul Khanate]] and some [[Moghulistan]]'s nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing.

There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew [[Tseveenravdan]] seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.

The Buryats fought against Russian [[Russian conquest of Siberia|invasion]] since the [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|1620s]] and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of [[Lake Baikal]] were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] established the northern border of [[Manchuria]] north of the present line. The Russians retained [[Trans-Baikal]]ia between Lake Baikal and the [[Argun River (Asia)|Argun River]] north of Mongolia. The [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)]], along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established the [[Mongolia-Russia border]]. [[Oka River (Siberia)|Oka]] Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians.

The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's [[Khoshut Khanate]] in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed.<ref name="montaa.mn">[http://montaa.mn/content/view/73/ БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115172101/http://montaa.mn/content/view/73/ |date=2013-11-15 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The [[Dzungar Khanate]] conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |date=July 6, 2011 }}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on [[genocide]],<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html |date=2008-12-16 }}, [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173830/https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC |date=2023-03-16 }}''". Berghahn Books. p.188. {{ISBN|1845454529}}</ref> The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.

About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to [[Volga River]] in 1607 and established the [[Kalmyk Khanate]].The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, [[Kho Orluk]]. Russia was concerned about their attack but the [[Kalmyks]] became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} The [[Tsardom of Russia]] gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The [[Russian Orthodox church]], by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000)<ref name="oirad.mn">[http://www.oirad.mn/2011/12/%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB/ ТИВ ДАМНАСАН НҮҮДЭЛ] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130628032215/http://www.oirad.mn/2011/12/%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB/ |date=2013-06-28 }} (Mongolian)</ref> Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] enemies. The last Kalmyk khan [[Ubashi Khan|Ubashi]] led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)]] to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress [[Catherine the Great]] ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.<ref name="oirad.mn"/><ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=1186139 Ижил мөрөн хүртэлх их нүүдэл] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131130070013/http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=1186139 |date=2013-11-30 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.shudarga.mn/news/10489.html Тал нутгийн Нүүдэлчин Халимагууд Эх нутаг Монгол руугаа тэмүүлсэн түүх] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203120601/http://www.shudarga.mn/news/10489.html |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.hicheel.mn/index.php?module=menu&cmd=content&id=3007&menu_id=437 Баруун Монголын нүүдэл суудал] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001654/http://www.hicheel.mn/index.php?module=menu&cmd=content&id=3007&menu_id=437 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://new.hist.asu.ru/biblio/V2/45-54.pdf К вопросу о бегстве волжских калмыков в Джунгарию в 1771 году] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725190713/http://new.hist.asu.ru/biblio/V2/45-54.pdf |date=2012-07-25 }} '''(Russian)'''</ref> The [[Kyrgyzs]] attacked them near [[Balkhash Lake]]. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the [[Volga River]] could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073)<ref name="oirad.mn"/> of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire).<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky (2002)."''[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405117767 Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800]''". Indiana University Press. p.142. {{ISBN|0253217709}}</ref> The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only [[Georgia (country)#Within the Russian Empire|Georgia]] voluntarily accepted Russian rule.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FIvp2uSOsIYC&pg=PA49| title = Владимир Андреевич Хамутаев, Присоединение Бурятии к России: история, право, политика| year = 2012| publisher = ARAMNG| isbn = 9785820002519}} '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131214084211/http://burinfo.org/news/kham_u/ Известный бурятский ученый Владимир Хамутаев собирается получить политическое убежище в США]}} '''(Russian)'''</ref>

In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged [[Han Chinese]] settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of "[[New Policies]]" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the [[Xinhai Revolution]], the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911]] in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.