Editing Monarchy of the United Kingdom (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of the monarchy of the United Kingdom}}

===English monarchy===
{{Redirect-multi|2|King of England|Queen of England|the current British king|Charles III|the current British queen consort|Queen Camilla|other uses|Queen of England (disambiguation)}}
{{Main|History of the English monarchy}}
{{See also|Kingdom of England|List of English monarchs}}
[[File:Odo bayeux tapestry.png|thumb|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066.]]

Following [[Viking]] raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of [[Wessex]] emerged as the dominant English kingdom. [[Alfred the Great]] secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western [[Mercia]], and assumed the title "King of the Anglo-Saxons". His grandson [[Æthelstan]] was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=13–17}} The [[conquest of England]] in 1066 by [[William, Duke of Normandy]], was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the [[feudal system]] continued to develop.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=102–127}}

William was succeeded by two of his sons: [[William II of England|William II]], then [[Henry I of England|Henry I]]. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]] (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, his nephew, [[Stephen, King of England|Stephen]], claimed the throne and took power with the support of most of the [[Baron#Barons in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth|barons]]. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as [[the Anarchy]]. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first [[Angevin king of England]] and the first monarch of the [[Plantagenet dynasty]] in 1154.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=30–46}}

The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, including the future monarchs [[Richard I]] and [[John, King of England|John]], but nevertheless managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the [[Angevin Empire]]. Upon Henry's death, his eldest surviving legitimate son Richard succeeded to the throne; Richard was absent from England for most of his reign, for he left to fight in the [[Crusades]]. He was killed whilst besieging a castle; John succeeded him. Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, son of John's deceased elder brother Duke Geoffrey II and himself former heir of Richard, was dissatisfied but disappeared the following year after being captured by John in 1202; Arthur's sister, Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany was placed under house arrest by John.

John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing [[Magna Carta]] ([[Latin]] for "Great Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the [[First Barons' War]], and French Prince Louis also claimed the throne as Louis I with the support of the rebellious princes as John's nephew-in-law. The war abruptly ended when John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son [[Henry III of England|Henry III]].{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=54–74}} Many rebellious lords also turned to support Henry III. In 1217, Louis was defeated and renounced the English throne. Eleanor's claim was not upheld, but according to John's will, she remained under house arrest until her death in 1241. The London Chronicle referred to her as the rightful heir to the throne, while the Lanercost Chronicle recorded a legend of Henry III giving her a golden crown before her death. With Geoffrey leaving no descendants, Henry III became the hereditary heir of the royal family.

Later in Henry's reign, [[Simon de Montfort]] led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the [[Second Barons' War]]. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=77–78}} In 1268, Henry III ordered the Amesbury Priory to commemorate both Arthur and Eleanor in commemoration of past kings and queens as well.

[[File:Normannen.png|thumb|left|Norman possessions in the 12th century, including England (1066–1485, not always in personal union with Normandy), Normandy (911–1204), [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|southern Italy and Sicily]] (1030–1263), [[Kingdom of Africa|parts of Africa around Tripoli]] (1146–1158), and the [[Crusader state]] of the [[Principality of Antioch]]. Not shown: [[Principality of Tarragona]] (1129–1173).]]

The next monarch, [[Edward Longshanks]], was far more successful in maintaining royal power and was responsible for the [[conquest of Wales]]. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, [[Edward II]], who also faced conflict with the nobility.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=79–93}} In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of [[Ordinances of 1311|baronial "ordainers"]]; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322.{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=595–597}} Edward was deposed by his wife [[Isabella of France|Isabella]] and his son, [[Edward III]], became king.

Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the [[Hundred Years' War]] between England and France. His campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses; he died in 1377, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson [[Richard II]]. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin [[Henry Bolingbroke]] seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=96–115}}

Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of [[John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster]]; hence, his dynasty was known as the [[House of Lancaster]]. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=118–130}}

The unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his consort, [[Margaret of Anjou]], as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so-called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was [[Richard, Duke of York]], who was at odds with the Queen. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, [[Edward IV]], led the Yorkists to victory in 1461, overthrowing Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou. Edward IV was constantly at odds with the Lancastrians and his own councillors after his marriage to [[Elizabeth Woodville]], with a brief return to power for Henry VI. Edward IV prevailed, winning back the throne at [[Battle of Barnet|Barnet]] and killing the Lancastrian heir, [[Edward of Westminster]], at [[Tewkesbury]]. Afterwards he captured Margaret of Anjou, eventually sending her into exile, but not before killing Henry VI while he was held prisoner in the Tower. The [[Wars of the Roses]], nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son [[Edward V]] and brother [[Richard III]]. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]], in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]].{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=133–165}}

King Henry VII then neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying [[Elizabeth of York]], daughter of King Edward IV and a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end.<ref>{{Harvp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|p=295}}; {{Harvp|Fraser|1975|pp=168–176}}</ref> The reign of the second Tudor king, [[Henry VIII]], was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope, and the fact that his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] produced only one surviving child, a daughter, led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and establish the [[Church of England]] (the Anglican Church) and divorce his wife to marry [[Anne Boleyn]].{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=179–189}}

Wales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542]].{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=194, 265, 309}} Henry VIII's son and successor, the young [[Edward VI]], continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister [[Mary I]] to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating [[Lady Jane Grey]] as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married [[Philip II of Spain|Philip of Spain]], who was declared king and co-ruler. He pursued disastrous wars in France and she attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism (burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process). Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister [[Elizabeth I]]. England returned to [[Protestantism]] and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.<ref>{{Harvp|Ashley|1998|pp=636–647}}; {{Harvp|Fraser|1975|pp=190–211}}</ref>

===Scottish monarchy===
{{Redirect2|Queen of Scots|Queen of Scotland||Scottish queen (disambiguation)}}
{{See also|Kingdom of Scotland|List of Scottish monarchs|Government in medieval Scotland|}}
In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman Empire from Great Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the [[Picts]] north of the Forth and Clyde, the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] in the south, including the [[Kingdom of Strathclyde]], and the [[Gaels]] or [[Scoti|Scotti]] (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of [[Dál Riata]] in Argyll and the southern Hebrides. [[Kenneth MacAlpin]] is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or [[kingdom of Alba|Alba]] to the Scots).{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=1–12, 35}} The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.

Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead, the custom of [[tanistry]] was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the [[House of Alpin]]. There was an elective element to early Scottish kings and this practice lingered for much longer in Scotland. For example, the first Stewart monarch, Robert II, was selected from among eligible royal males at Linlithgow in 1370 by the [[Three Estates]] of the Scottish Parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9412/CBP-9412.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011214946/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9412/CBP-9412.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2022 |url-status=live |title=The coronation: history and ceremonial |series=Research Briefing |publisher=House of Commons Library |last=Tarrance |first=David |date=18 October 2022 |page=8}}</ref> However, as a result of this elective element, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle.{{Sfnp|Weir|1996|pp=164–177}} In 1005, [[Malcolm II]] ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, [[Duncan I]], instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of [[Macbeth, King of Scotland|Macbeth]], who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm]]. The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson [[Lulach]], Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=390–395}}

With a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, [[David I of Scotland|David I]]. David was succeeded by his grandsons [[Malcolm IV]], and then by [[William the Lion]], the longest-reigning King of Scots before the [[Union of the Crowns]].<ref>{{Harvp|Ashley|1998|pp=400–407}}; {{Harvp|Weir|1996|pp=185–198}}</ref> William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|p=170}} William died in 1214 and was succeeded by his son [[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]]. Alexander II, as well as his successor [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]], attempted to take over the [[Western Isles]], which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing [[Treaty of Perth]] recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.<ref>{{Harvp|Ashley|1998|pp=407–409}}; {{Harvp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=187, 196}}</ref>

Alexander III's death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, [[Margaret, Maid of Norway|Margaret]]. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|13 rival claimants to the throne]]. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced [[John Balliol]] to be king. Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], Scotland had no monarch, until [[Robert the Bruce]] declared himself king in 1306.{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=409–412}}

Robert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, [[David II of Scotland|David II]]. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, [[Edward Balliol]], the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=549–552}}

[[File:James-IV-Miniature-Book-Of-Hours.png|thumb|left|[[James IV]], King of Scotland from 1488–1513, with the [[Crown of Scotland]]]]

David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]] of the [[House of Stuart]]. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, [[Robert III of Scotland|Robert III]], were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, [[regent]]s had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son [[James I of Scotland|James I]], had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. [[James II of Scotland|James II]] continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. [[James III of Scotland|James III]] was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: [[James IV]].{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=552–565}}

In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at [[Flodden Field]]; the king, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, [[James V]], was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, [[Mary, Queen of Scots|Mary]]. Once again, a regency was established.

Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as [[John Knox]], a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]], in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell|Earl of Bothwell]], who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son [[James VI]], who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English queen Elizabeth I.{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=567–575}}

===Personal union and republican phase===
[[File:JamesIEngland.jpg|thumb|right|In 1603 [[James VI and I]] became the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together.]]
Elizabeth I's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch [[James VI]], who was the great-grandson of [[Henry VIII]]'s older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "[[Union of the Crowns]]". Although England and Scotland were in [[personal union]] under one monarch – James I & VI became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604<ref>Royal Arms, Styles, and Titles of Great Britain: Westminster, 20 October 1604</ref> – they remained two separate kingdoms. James I & VI's successor, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by [[Personal rule|ruling without Parliament]] from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish [[Presbyterians]] and the English [[Puritans]]). His attempt to enforce [[Anglicanism]] led to [[Bishops' Wars|organised rebellion in Scotland]] and ignited the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]. In 1642, the conflict between the king and Parliament reached its climax and the [[English Civil War]] began.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=214–231}}

The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of England]]. Charles I's son, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the [[Battle of Worcester]]. In 1653, [[Oliver Cromwell]], the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself [[Lord Protector]] (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]]. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing, and he soon resigned.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=393–400}} The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and to a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the [[Stuart Restoration|monarchy was restored]] and Charles II returned to Britain.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|p=232}}

Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, [[James, Duke of York]]. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the [[Succession to the British throne|line of succession]] arose; the "Petitioners", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers", who opposed exclusion, became the [[Tory Party]]. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and imprison [[Seven Bishops|Church of England clerics who challenged his policies]]. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the [[Immortal Seven]] invited James II & VII's daughter [[Mary II of England|Mary]] and her husband [[William III of Orange]] to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James II & VII's Catholic son]]) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=242–245}}

James's overthrow, known as the [[Glorious Revolution]], was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The [[Bill of Rights 1689]] affirmed parliamentary supremacy and declared that the English people held certain rights, including freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]] would inherit the Crown. Mary II died childless in 1694, leaving William III & II as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]], might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of [[Sophia, Electress of Hanover]], next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=439–440}} Soon after the passage of the Act, William III & II died, leaving the Crown to Anne.

===After the 1707 Acts of Union===
[[File:Dahl, Michael - Queen Anne - NPG 6187.jpg|thumb|326x326px|England and Scotland were united as the Kingdom of Great Britain under [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] in 1707.]]
{{see also|List of British monarchs}}
After Anne's accession, the problem of succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the [[Act of Security 1704]], threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the [[Alien Act 1705]], threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the [[Acts of Union 1707]], under which England and Scotland were united into a single [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=447–448}}
[[File:KrkHannover.png|thumb|The [[Electorate of Hanover|Electorate]] later [[Kingdom of Hanover]] was in [[personal union]] with the British monarchy from 1714 to 1837. (Orange; borders shown 1814–1866.)]]
In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, [[George I of Great Britain|George I]], [[Elector of Hanover]], who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=460–469}} Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir [[Robert Walpole]], who is often considered the first [[British prime minister]], although the title was not then in use.<ref>{{Citation |title=Sir Robert Walpole |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/walpole_robert.shtml |publisher=BBC |access-date=14 October 2008 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230015417/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/walpole_robert.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

The next monarch, [[George II of Great Britain|George II]], witnessed the end of the Jacobite threat in 1746 when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, [[George III]], thirteen of Britain's American colonies were lost when they formed the [[United States of America]] after the [[American Revolutionary War]], but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow. The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] was created by the [[Acts of Union 1800]].{{Sfnp|Ashley|1998|pp=677–680}}
[[File:Allan Ramsay - King George III in coronation robes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|308x308px|The union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom occurred in 1801 under [[George III]].]]
From 1811 to 1820, George III was rendered incapable of ruling by mental illness. His son, the future [[George IV]], ruled in his stead as [[List of regents|Prince Regent]]. During [[the Regency]] and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, [[William IV]], the monarch was no longer able to interfere effectively with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne]], and appointed a Tory, Sir [[Robert Peel]]. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the [[Reform Act 1832]], which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.{{Sfnp|Cannon|Griffiths|1988|pp=530–550}}

The final transition to a [[constitutional monarchy]] was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]. As a woman, Victoria could not rule [[Kingdom of Hanover|Hanover]], which permitted succession only in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The [[Victorian era]] was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of [[British Raj|British rule over India]], Victoria was declared [[Empress of India]] in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the [[Republicanism in the United Kingdom|republican movement]], due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of [[Albert, Prince Consort|her husband]] in 1861.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=305–306}}

Victoria's son, [[Edward VII]], became the first monarch of the [[House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, [[George V]], changed "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "[[House of Windsor|Windsor]]" in response to the anti-German sentiment aroused by the [[First World War]]. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the [[Irish Free State]], an independent nation, in 1922.{{Sfnp|Fraser|1975|pp=314–333}}

===Shared monarchy===
[[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|upright=1.75|right|The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921]]
During the twentieth century, the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] evolved from the [[British Empire]]. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the [[Dominion]]s and [[Crown Colonies]] were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The [[Balfour Declaration of 1926]] gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]],<ref>{{Citation |title=Statute of Westminster 1931 |date=11 October 2001 |url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/westmins.htm |publisher=Government of Nova Scotia |access-date=20 April 2008 |archive-date=10 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110220056/https://beta.novascotia.ca/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries".<ref>Justice Rouleau in [http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/2003/2003canlii41404/2003canlii41404.html O'Donohue v. Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627231349/http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/2003/2003canlii41404/2003canlii41404.html |date=27 June 2013 }}, 2003 CanLII 41404 (ON S.C.)</ref>

The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, [[Monarchy of Canada|Canada]], [[Monarchy of Australia|Australia]], [[Monarchy of New Zealand|New Zealand]], and so forth; one person reigning in multiple distinct sovereign states, in a relationship likened to a [[personal union]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zines |first=Leslie |title=The High Court and the Constitution |date=2008 |publisher=Federation Press |isbn=978-1-86287-691-0 |edition=5th |location=[[Annandale, New South Wales]] |page=314 |author-link=Leslie Zines}}; {{Citation |last=Corbett |first=P.E. |title=The Status of the British Commonwealth in International Law |journal=University of Toronto Law Journal |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=348–359 |date=1940 |doi=10.2307/824318|jstor=824318 }}; {{Citation |last=Scott |first=F.R. |title=The End of Dominion Status |date=January 1944 |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=34–49 |doi=10.2307/2192530 |jstor=2192530 |s2cid=147122057}}; ''R v Foreign Secretary; Ex parte Indian Association'' (1982). QB 892 at 928; as referenced in [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1999/30.html High Court of Australia: Sue v Hill HCA 30; 23 June 1999; S179/1998 and B49/1998] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115130315/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1999/30.html |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref>

George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of [[Edward VIII]], who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American [[Wallis Simpson]], even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcees. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to [[Abdication of Edward VIII|abdicate]]; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, [[George VI]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31061|title=Edward VIII|access-date=20 April 2008|last=Matthew|first=H. C. G.|author-link=Colin Matthew|date=September 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/31061}}</ref> George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and areas bombed by [[Nazi Germany]]. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title ''Emperor of India'', although remaining head of state of the [[Dominion of India]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33370|title=George VI|access-date=20 April 2008|last=Matthew|first=H.C.G.|date=September 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/33370}}</ref>

At first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as "[[Head of the Commonwealth]]" in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government.<ref name="Boyce">{{Cite book |last=Boyce |first=Peter John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kY-Tk0-quyoC&pg=PA41 |title=The Queen's Other Realms: The Crown and Its Legacy in Australia, Canada and New Zealand |date=2008 |publisher=Federation Press |isbn=9781862877009 |page=41 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="hoc">{{Citation |title=Head of the Commonwealth |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706045334/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth/ |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |access-date=26 September 2008 |archive-date=6 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are informally known as [[Commonwealth realm]]s.<ref name="Boyce" />

===Monarchy in Ireland===
{{Multiple image| direction=horizontal| width=| footer=| width1=150| image1=HenryIIGospels.jpg| alt1=| caption1=Henry II took the Lordship of Ireland in the 12th century| width2=170| image2=1491_Henry_VIII.jpg| alt2=| caption2=Henry VIII raised it to a kingdom in the 16th century}}
{{see also|Monarchy of Ireland}}
In 1155 the only English Pope, [[Adrian IV]], authorised King [[Henry II of England]] to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The Pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the [[Celtic Christianity|Irish church]] into line with Rome, despite this process already being underway in Ireland by 1155.<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/173|title=Adrian IV|access-date=20 April 2008|last=Sayer|first=Jane E.|date=September 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/173}} (Subscription required)</ref> An [[High King of Ireland|all-island kingship of Ireland]] had been created in 854 by [[Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid]]. His last successor was [[Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair]], who had become High King of Ireland in early 1166 and exiled [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], the King of [[Leinster]], a [[vassal]] kingdom. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]], to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster.<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/17697|title=Dermot MacMurrough|access-date=20 April 2008|last=Flanagan|first=M. T.|date=September 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/17697}} (Subscription required)</ref> Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the [[papal bull]] and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the [[Gaelic nobility of Ireland|major Irish kings and lords]] to recognise him as their [[Lordship of Ireland|overlord]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/17697|title=Clare, Richard fitz Gilbert de, second earl of Pembroke (c.1130–1176)|access-date=14 October 2008|last=Flanagan|first=M. T.|year= 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/17697}} (Subscription required)</ref>

By 1542, King [[Henry VIII]] of England [[English Reformation|had broken with the Church of Rome]] and declared himself [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]]. The Pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish Parliament]] to change his title from ''Lord of Ireland'' to ''King of Ireland''.<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12955|title=Henry VIII|access-date=20 April 2008|last=Ives|first=E. W.|date=September 2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12955}} (Subscription required)</ref>

In 1800, as a result of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]], the Act of Union merged the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland into the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922 when what is now the [[Republic of Ireland]] won independence as the [[Irish Free State]], a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Ireland in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. [[Northern Ireland]] remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India".

===Modern status and popularity===
In the 1990s, [[republicanism in the United Kingdom]] grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the royal family (for instance, immediately following the death of [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]).<ref>{{Citation |last=Seely |first=Robert |title=Can the Windsors survive Diana's death? |date=5 September 1997 |url=http://britannia.com/diana/article5.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410095151/http://www.britannia.com/diana/article5.html |publisher=Britannia Internet Magazine |access-date=20 April 2008 |archive-date=10 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, ''[[The Independent]]'' maintained polls from 2002 to 2007 showed that around 70–80% of the British public supported the continuation of the monarchy.<ref>{{Citation |last=Grice |first=Andrew |title=Polls reveal big rise in support for monarchy |date=9 April 2002 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/poll-reveals-big-rise-in-support-for-monarchy-656892.html |work=[[The Independent]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612223517/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/poll-reveals-big-rise-in-support-for-monarchy-656892.html |access-date=20 April 2008 |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}; {{Citation |title=Monarchy poll |date=April 2006 |url=https://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/378/Monarchy-Poll-April-2006.aspx |publisher=[[Ipsos MORI]] |access-date=6 August 2016 |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123163103/https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/monarchy-poll-april-2006 |url-status=live }}; {{Citation |title=Monarchy Survey |date=14–16 December 2007 |url=http://populuslimited.com/uploads/download_pdf-160108-The-Discovery-Channel-Monarchy-Survey.pdf |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511201056/http://populuslimited.com/uploads/download_pdf-160108-The-Discovery-Channel-Monarchy-Survey.pdf |publisher=[[Populus Ltd]] |access-date=30 November 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}; {{Citation |title=Poll respondents back UK monarchy |date=28 December 2007 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7162649.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=30 November 2011 |archive-date=8 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208182109/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7162649.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2022, shortly after the death of Elizabeth II, ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that a [[YouGov]] poll showed that 68% of British people felt positively about the monarchy. The newspaper speculated that some of this may have been a reaction to the Queen's death, and said it showed dissatisfaction is higher among young people; 47% of people aged between 18 and 24 wanted the monarchy to continue, compared to 86% aged 65 and over. In May 2022, before the Queen's death, the newspaper reported that polling showed 33% of those aged between 18 and 24 wanted the monarchy to continue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/sep/16/britain-grief-polling-figures-monarchy-popularity|title=Britain may look united in grief – but polling shows a growing generational divide|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Matthew|last=Smith|date=16 September 2022|accessdate=28 November 2022}}</ref> In January 2023, a [[YouGov]] survey of roughly 1,700 UK people found that 64% thought that the country should continue to have a monarchy, though that was lower than the 67% in September 2022 around the time of Queen Elizabeth II's death.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/6246128/prince-harry-monarchy-attitudes-spare/|title=Why Prince Harry's Unsparing Attacks Did Little to Dent the Royal Family's Popularity|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|first=Yasmeen|last=Serhan|date=10 January 2023|accessdate=24 February 2023|archive-date=24 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224110905/https://time.com/6246128/prince-harry-monarchy-attitudes-spare/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=British Monarchy Poll |url=https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/leosln75nr/Internal_Royals_230111.pdf |publisher=YouGov |access-date=22 April 2023 |archive-date=22 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422181342/https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/leosln75nr/Internal_Royals_230111.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>