Editing Luxembourg (section)

=== National awakening (1815–1890) ===
{{See also|Luxembourg question}}
After the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|defeat]] of [[Napoleon]] in 1815, the Duchy of Luxembourg was restored. However, as the territory had been part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburgian Netherlands in the past, both the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] and the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] now claimed possession of the territory. At the [[Congress of Vienna]] the great powers decided that Luxembourg would become a member state of the newly formed [[German Confederation]], but at the same time [[William I of the Netherlands]], the [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|King of the Netherlands]], would become, in [[personal union]], the head of state. To satisfy Prussia, it was decided that not only the [[Fortress of Luxembourg]] be manned by [[Prussian Army|Prussian troops]], but also that large parts of Luxembourgish territory (mainly the areas around Bitburg and St. Vith) become Prussian possessions.<ref>Johan Christiaan Boogman: Nederland en de Duitse Bond 1815–1851. Diss. Utrecht, J. B. Wolters, Groningen / Djakarta 1955, pp. 5–8.</ref> This marked the second time that the Duchy of Luxembourg was reduced in size, and is generally known as the [[Partitions of Luxembourg|Second Partition of Luxembourg]]. To compensate the Duchy for this loss, it was decided to elevate the Duchy to a [[Grand duchy|Grand-Duchy]], thus giving the Dutch monarchs the additional title of [[Grand-Duke of Luxembourg]]. However, from 1816 to 1830, [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] ignored the Duchy's sovereignty, treating Luxembourg as a conquered nation while subjecting Luxembourg to high taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-15 |title=Luxembourg - Grand Duchy, Europe, Charlemagne {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Luxembourg/History |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

After Belgium became an independent country following the victorious [[Belgian Revolution|Belgian Revolution of 1830–1831]], it claimed the entire Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg as being part of Belgium, however, the Dutch King who was also Grand Duke of Luxembourg, as well as Prussia, did not want to lose their grip on the mighty fortress of Luxembourg and did not agree with the Belgian claims.<ref>Michel Pauly Die Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p. 68</ref> The dispute would be solved at the [[Treaty of London (1839)|1839 Treaty of London]] where the decision of the [[Partitions of Luxembourg|Third Partition of Luxembourg]] was taken. This time the territory was reduced by more than half, as the predominantly [[francophone]] [[Luxembourg (Belgium)|western part of the country]] (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part of [[Arelerland]]) was transferred to the new state of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders. The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.<ref>Thewes, Guy (2006) (PDF). Les gouvernements du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg depuis 1848 (2006), p. 208</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.landenweb.net/luxemburg/geschiedenis/ |title=LUXEMBURG Geschiedenis |publisher=Landenweb.net |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510190747/http://www.landenweb.net/luxemburg/geschiedenis/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2088.html|access-date=1 February 2013|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=27 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227190053/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2088.html}}</ref><ref>Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1997</ref>

In 1842, Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union (''[[Zollverein]]'').<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 76</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Harmsen|first1=Robert|title=Luxembourg and the European Union|date=28 February 2020|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1041|isbn=978-0-19-022863-7|last2=Högenauer|first2=Anna-Lena}}</ref> This resulted in the opening of the German market, the development of [[Steel industry in Luxembourg|Luxembourg's steel industry]], and expansion of [[Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois|Luxembourg's railway network]] from 1855 to 1875.

After the [[Luxembourg Crisis]] of 1866 nearly led to war between Prussia and France, as both were unwilling to see the other taking influence over Luxembourg and its mighty fortress, the Grand Duchy's independence and neutrality were reaffirmed by the [[Treaty of London, 1867|Second Treaty of London]] and Prussia was finally willing to withdraw its troops from the Fortress of Luxembourg under the condition that the fortifications would be dismantled. That happened the same year.<ref>Kreins (2003), pp. 80–81</ref> At the time of the [[Franco-Prussian war]] in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country.<ref>Maartje Abbenhuis, ''An Age of Neutrals: Great Power Politics, 1815–1914''. Cambridge University Press (2014) {{ISBN|978-1-107-03760-1}}</ref>

As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed a consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century.<ref>Michel Pauly, Geschichte Luxemburgs 2013 p.75</ref> The people of Luxembourg began referring to themselves as ''[[Luxembourgers]]'', rather than being part of one of the larger surrounding nations. This consciousness of ''[[Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sinn]]'' ("''We want to remain what we are ")'' culminated in 1890, when the last step towards full independence was finally taken: due to a succession crisis the [[Dutch monarchy]] ceased to hold the title Grand-Duke of Luxembourg. Beginning with [[Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg|Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg]], the Grand-Duchy would have [[Nassau-Weilburg|its own monarchy]], thus reaffirming its full independence.<ref>Kreins (2003), p. 84</ref>