Editing Leadership (section)

===Behavioral and style theories===
{{Main|Managerial grid model}}

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Towards a theory of leadership practice |first3=John B. |last3=Diamond |first1=James P. |first2=Richard |last2=Halverson |last1=Spillane |journal = Journal of Curriculum Studies |volume= 36 | issue = 1 |pages=3–34 |year=2004 |doi=10.1080/0022027032000106726|s2cid=3094291}}
</ref> [[David McClelland]], for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horton|first=Thomas|location=New York|title=The CEO Paradox|publisher=American Management Association|year=1992|isbn=9780814450932 |url=https://archive.org/details/ceoparadoxprivil00hort}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Management Grid.PNG|right|thumb|200px|A graphical representation of the managerial grid model]]

[[Kurt Lewin]], Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of [[group decision making]], [[praise]] and [[criticism]] ([[feedback]]), and the management of the group tasks ([[project management]]) according to three styles: [[#Autocratic or authoritarian|authoritarian]], [[#Participative or democratic|democratic]], and [[#Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership|laissez-faire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lewin |first1 = Kurt |author1-link = Kurt Lewin |last2 = Lippitt |first2 = Ronald |last3 = White | first3 = Ralph | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates |journal = [[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |pages = 271–301 |year = 1939 }}
</ref>

In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.<ref>"Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples" (2017){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.<ref>AAmodt (2015){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.<ref>Stoker (2016){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by [[Robert Blake (management)|Robert Blake]] and [[Jane Mouton]] in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blake |first1=R. |last2=Mouton |first2=J.|title = The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence |year=1964 |publisher=Gulf Publishing Co. |location=Houston, TX }}</ref>

====Positive reinforcement====
[[B. F. Skinner]] is the father of [[behavior modification]] and developed the concept of [[positive reinforcement]]. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miltenberger|first=R.G.|year=2004|title=Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures|edition=3rd|location=Belmont, California|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning}}</ref> The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume [[praise]] is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html|title = Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)|website= Simply Psychology| year=2007 | last1=McLeod | first1=Saul }}</ref>

Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lussier|first1=R.N.|last2=Achua|first2=C. F.|year=2010|title=Leadership, Theory, Application, & Skill Development|edition=4th|location=Mason, Ohio|publisher=South-Western Cengage Learning}}</ref> Empirical research covering the last 20 years{{update inline|reason="last" ending when?|date=August 2023}} suggests that applying [[reinforcement theory]] leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.