Editing Johannes Vermeer (section)

==Style==
[[File:Johannes Vermeer - Het melkmeisje - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[The Milkmaid (Vermeer)|The Milkmaid]]'' (c. 1658), [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam]]
Vermeer may have first executed his paintings tonally like most painters of his time, using either monochrome shades of grey ("[[grisaille]]") or a limited palette of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated colors (reds, yellows, and blues) in the form of transparent glazes. No drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few clues to preparatory methods.

There is no other 17th-century artist who employed the exorbitantly expensive pigment [[ultramarine]] (derived from natural [[lapis lazuli]]) either so lavishly or so early in his career. Vermeer used this pigment in not just elements that are naturally of this colour; he also used it early in a work, beneath subsequent earth colours such as [[umber]] and [[ochre]], to subtly tint their shade.<ref>[https://www.cnn.com/videos/arts/2023/02/14/johannes-vermeer-exhibition-amsterdam-rijksmuseum.cnn] "Never to be repeated Vermeer exhibition stuns with scientific revelations", ''CNN''</ref> This working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding of [[Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo's]] observations that the surface of every object partakes of the colour of the adjacent object.<ref name=wadum95/>

An example of Vermeer using ultramarine as an [[underpainting|underpaint]] is in ''[[The Girl with the Wine Glass]]''. The shadows of the red satin dress are underpainted in natural ultramarine,{{Sfn|Gaskell|Jonker|National Gallery of Art (U.S.)|1998|p=157}} and, owing to this underlying blue paint layer, the [[lake pigment|red lake]] and [[vermilion]] mixture applied over it acquires a slightly purple, cool and crisp appearance.

Even after Vermeer's evident financial breakdown following the so-called [[rampjaar]] (year of disaster) in 1672, he continued to employ natural ultramarine generously, such as in ''[[Lady Seated at a Virginal]]''. This could suggest that Vermeer was supplied with materials by a collector and would coincide with [[John Michael Montias]]' theory that [[Pieter van Ruijven]] was Vermeer's patron.

Vermeer's works are largely [[Genre works|genre pieces]] and portraits, with the exception of two cityscapes and two [[allegory|allegories]]. His subjects offer a cross-section of seventeenth-century Dutch society, ranging from the portrayal of a simple milkmaid at work, to the luxury and splendour of rich notables and merchantmen in their roomy houses. Besides these subjects, religious, poetical, musical, and scientific comments can also be found in his work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE ASTRONOMER by Johannes Vermeer |url=https://www.essentialvermeer.com/catalogue/astronomer.html |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=www.essentialvermeer.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=THE ART OF PAINTING by Johannes Vermeer |url=https://www.essentialvermeer.com/catalogue/art_of_painting.html |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=www.essentialvermeer.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=THE ALLEGORY OF FAITH by Johannes Vermeer |url=https://www.essentialvermeer.com/catalogue/allegory_of_faith.html |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=www.essentialvermeer.com}}</ref>

===Painting materials===
One aspect of his meticulous painting technique was Vermeer's choice of pigments.{{Sfn|Kuhn|1968|pp=154–202}} He is best known for his frequent use of the very expensive [[ultramarine]] (''[[The Milkmaid (Vermeer)|The Milkmaid]]'') and also [[lead-tin-yellow]] (''[[A Lady Writing a Letter]]''), [[madder lake]] ([[Christ in the House of Martha and Mary (Vermeer)|''Christ in the House of Martha and Mary'']]), and [[vermilion]]. He also painted with [[ochres]], [[bone char|bone black]] and [[azurite]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://colourlex.com/paintings/paintings-painter/dutch-painters/ |title=Pigment Analyses of Paintings: Dutch Painters |work=ColourLex}}</ref> The claim that he used [[Indian yellow]] in ''[[Woman Holding a Balance]]''{{Sfn|Kuhn|1968|pp=191–192}} has been disproven by pigment analysis.<ref>{{Cite contribution |last=Gifford |first=E. M. |title=Painting Light: Recent Observations on Vermeer's Technique}} In {{harvnb|Gaskell|Jonker|National Gallery of Art (U.S.)|1998|pp=185–199}}</ref>

In Vermeer's oeuvre, only about 20 pigments have been detected. Of these, seven principal pigments that Vermeer commonly employed are lead white, yellow ochre, vermilion, madder lake, green earth, raw umber, and ivory or bone black.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Janson|first1=Jonathan|title=Vermeer's Palette|url=http://www.essentialvermeer.com/palette/palette_vermeer'_palette.html#.WM7coBIrJE5|website=Essential Vermeer|access-date=19 March 2017}}</ref>

=== Theories of mechanical aid ===

Vermeer's painting techniques have long been a source of debate, given their almost [[photorealistic]] attention to detail, despite Vermeer's having had no formal training and despite only limited evidence that Vermeer had created any preparatory sketches or traces for his paintings.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sooke|first=Alastair|date=25 April 2017|title=Why Vermeer's paintings are less 'real' than we think|url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20170425-why-vermeers-paintings-are-less-real-than-we-think|access-date=26 January 2021|website=BBC Culture}}</ref>

In 2001, British artist [[David Hockney]] published the book ''Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters'', in which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance and Baroque artists including [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] and [[Diego Velázquez]]) used optics to achieve precise positioning in their compositions, and specifically some combination of [[curved mirror]]s, [[camera obscura]], and [[camera lucida]]. This became known as the [[Hockney–Falco thesis]], named after Hockney and [[Charles M. Falco]], another proponent of the theory.

Philip Steadman published the book ''Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth behind the Masterpieces'' in 2001, in which Steadman specifically claimed that Vermeer had used a camera obscura to create his paintings. Steadman noted that many of Vermeer's paintings had been painted in the same room, and he found six of Vermeer's paintings that would be precisely the right size if they had been painted from inside a camera obscura in the room's back wall.<ref name=BBC_Steadman/>

Supporters of these theories have pointed to evidence in some of Vermeer's paintings, such as the often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights in Vermeer's paintings, which they argue are the result of the primitive lens of a camera obscura producing [[halo (optical phenomenon)|halation]]. It was also postulated that a [[camera obscura]] was the mechanical cause of the "exaggerated" perspective seen in ''[[The Music Lesson]]'' (London, [[Royal Collection]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Steadman|first=Philip|title=Vermeer and the Problem of Painting Inside the Camera Obscura|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2017|isbn=978-3-11-054721-4|location=Berlin/Munich/Boston|pages=76–86}}</ref>

In 2008, American entrepreneur and inventor [[Tim Jenison]] developed the theory that Vermeer had used a camera obscura along with a "comparator mirror", which is similar in concept to a [[camera lucida]] but much simpler and makes it easy to match colour values. Jenison later modified the theory to simply involve a concave mirror and a comparator mirror. He spent the next five years testing his theory by re-creating ''The Music Lesson'' himself using these tools, a process captured in the 2013 documentary film ''[[Tim's Vermeer]]''.<ref name=Vanity/>

Several points were brought out by Jenison in support of this technique. First was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition of light falloff along the wall. Neurobiologist [[Colin Blakemore]], in an interview with Jenison, notes that human vision cannot process information about the absolute brightness of a scene.<ref name=Tims/> Another was the addition of several highlights and outlines consistent with matching the effects of [[chromatic aberration]], particularly noticeable in primitive optics. Last, and perhaps most telling, is a noticeable curvature in the original painting's rendition of the scrollwork on the [[Virginals|virginal]]. This effect matched Jenison's technique precisely, caused by exactly duplicating the view as seen from a curved mirror.

This theory remains disputed. While there is no historical evidence regarding Vermeer's interest in optics, Vermeer was in close connection with pioneer lens maker [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]], who was his executor after death.<ref name="bryson" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=van Berkel |first=K. |date=1996 |title=Vermeer, Van Leeuwenhoek en De Astronoom |url=https://research.rug.nl/nl/publications/vermeer-van-leeuwenhoek-en-de-astronoom |journal=Vrij Nederland |pages=62–67}}</ref> The detailed inventory of the artist's belongings drawn up after his death includes no camera obscura, lens, nor similar device.<ref name=Obscura/><ref name="Inventory"/>{{Efn|The inventory taken soon after Vermeer's death does not mention a camera obscura, although it does include mirrors, easels, palettes, canvases, and a possible [[maulstick]]. Gold, silver, jewellery, or musical instruments are not mentioned; it has been suggested that Catharina Bolnes might have removed any valuables from the house to conceal them from her creditors, or pawned the jewels and gold and silver.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roelofs |first1=Pieter |title=Exhibition for the 2023 exhibition ''"Vermeer"'' at the Rijksmuseum |chapter=Closer to Vermeer: A Look Inside the Family Home of the Delft Painter |date=2023 |publisher=Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; Hannibal Books, Veurne |isbn=978-94-6466-616-8 |pages=42–99}}</ref>}}