Editing Jihad (section)

==History ==
{{See also|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}
In pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Bedouin]]s raided enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils. According to some scholars (such as James Turner Johnson), while Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" in ''jihad'' "holy war" and ''ghaza'' (raids), the "fundamental structure" of this Bedouin warfare "remained, ... raiding to collect booty".<ref name="johnson-147">{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=James Turner |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=IoEjpRsvuzUC|page=148}}
|title=Holy War Idea in Western and Islamic Traditions |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-0271042145 |pages=147–48 |quote=Islam ... instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief that a war against the followers of another faith was a holy war ... The fundamental structure of bedouin warfare remained, however, that of raiding to collect booty. ... another element in the normative understanding of ''jihad'' as religiously sanctioned war ... [was] the ghaza, `[[Razzia (military)|razzia]] or raid.` ... Thus the standard form of desert warfare, periodic raids by the nomadic tribes against one another and the settled areas, was transformed into a centrally directed military movement and given and ideological rationale. |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> According to [[Jonathan Berkey]], the Qur'an's statements in support of ''jihad'' may have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared.<ref name="Berkey2003">{{cite book|last=Berkey|first=Jonathan Porter|author-link=Jonathan Berkey|title=The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521588133 |page=[https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk/page/73 73]|quote=The Koran is not a squeamish document, and it exhorts the believers to ''jihad''. Verses such as "Do not follow the unbelievers, but struggle against them mightily" (25.52) and "fight [those who have been given a revelation] who do not believe in God and the last day" (9.29) may originally have been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but they could be redirected once a new set of enemies appeared.}}</ref> According to scholar Majid Khadduri, it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-Bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam to expand and to avoid self-destruction.<ref name="Khadduri-1955-62">{{harvnb|Khadduri|1955}} {{cite book|chapter-url=https://actforamericaeducation.com/downloads/All_Files_by_Type/khadduri.pdf|access-date=26 October 2015|title=War and Peace in the Law of Islam|pages=55–73|chapter=Book II - The Law of War: The Jihad - Chapter V. Doctrine of ''Jihad''|quote=The importance of the ''jihad'' in Islam lay in shifting the focus of attention of the tribes from their interribal warfare to the outside word; Islam outlawed all forms of war except the ''jihad'', that is the war in Allah's path. It would indeed, have been very difficult for the Islamic state to survive had it not been for the doctrine of the ''jihad'', replacing tribal raids, and directing that enormous energy of the tribes from an inevitable internal conflict to unite and fight against the outside world in the name of the new faith.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128192525/http://www.actforamericaeducation.com/downloads/All_Files_by_Type/khadduri.pdf|archive-date=28 November 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|60}}

===Classical===
According to [[Al-Baqara 256]] "there is no compulsion in religion".<ref name="qref|2|256">{{qref|2|256|b=yl}}</ref> The primary aim of ''jihad'' as warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the [[Islamic state]].<ref name=EIO-djihad>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Djihād|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam Online|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lQpd0AEACAAJ}}}}</ref><ref name="Peters-1977-3">{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=Rudolph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Lm4XnNtI_1wC\page=3}}|title=Jihad in Mediaeval and Modern Islam: The Chapter on Jihad from Averroes' Legal Handbook 'Bidåayat Al-mudjtahid' and the Treatise 'Koran and Fighting' by the Late Shaykh-al-Azhar, Maòhmåud Shaltåut |date=1977 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-04854-6 |language=en|page= 3}}</ref> There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.<ref name=Lewis>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=br74_99YqSIC}}
|title=Islam and the West |date=1994-10-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-802393-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|9–10}} One who died "on the path of God" was a martyr (''[[shahid]]''), whose sins were remitted and who secured "immediate entry to paradise".<ref name="OCAP">{{cite book|editor1-last=Coates|editor1-first=David|title=The Oxford Companion to American Politics, Volume 2|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press |page=16 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=W_BMAgAAQBAJ|page=16}} |isbn=9780199764310}}</ref>

According with [[Bernard Lewis]], "from an early date Muslim law laid down" ''jihad'' in the military sense as "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declared ''jihad'', and the Muslim community.<ref name=Lewis/> According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine of ''jihad'' "towards the end of the eighth century", using the doctrine of ''[[naskh (tafsir)|naskh]]'' (that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of Muhammed's mission). They subordinated Qur'anic verses emphasizing harmony to the more "confrontational" verses of Muhammad's later years and linked verses on exertion (''jihad'') to those of fighting (''qital'').<ref name=Kadri12/>{{rp|1501}} Muslims jurists of the eighth century divided the world into three divisions, ''dar al-Islam''/''dar al-‛adl''/''dar al-salam'' (house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace), ''dar al-harb''/''dar al-jawr'' (house of war/house of injustice, oppression), and ''dar al-sulh''/''dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah'' (house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation).<ref>{{cite book |author=Ahmed Al- |title=The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=9XfFAAAAQBAJ|page=92}}
 |date=28 March 2011b |publisher=Springer |isbn=9780230118089|pages=92}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isjihadjustwar00zawa/page/50|title=Isw+bm Jihād a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law|last=Zawātī|first=Ḥilmī M|date=2001|publisher=E. Mellen Press|isbn=0773473041|series=Studies in religion and society|volume=53|location=Lewiston, N.Y.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isjihadjustwar00zawa/page/50 50]|oclc=47283206}}</ref> The eighth century jurist [[Sufyan al-Thawri]] (d. 778) headed what [[Majid Khadduri|Khadduri]] called a pacifist school, which maintained that ''jihad'' was only a defensive war.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Law of War and Peace in Islam: A Study in Muslim International Law|last=Khadduri|first=Majid|date=1940|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ejBHAAAAIAAJ}}|publisher=Luzac & Co|location=London|language=en|oclc=24254931}}</ref>{{rp|36ff}}<ref name=AD11/>{{rp|90}} He stated that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers to [[Hanafi]] jurists [[Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i|al-Awza‛i]] (d. 774) and [[Malik ibn Anas]] (d. 795), and other early jurists, "stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of the ''dar al-harb'' came into conflict with Islam."<ref name=AD11/>{{rp|80}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Shaybani |first=Muhammad Ibn al-H. |url=|title=The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar. |date=1966 |publisher=Johns Hopkins Press |language=en|translator-first=[Majid |translator-last=Khadduri}}</ref>{{rp|58}} The duty of ''Jihad'' was a collective one (''[[fard al-kifaya]]''). It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delay it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time.<ref name=Kadri12/>{{rp|150–51}} Within classical [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], during the first few centuries after the prophet's death,<ref>[[Albrecht Noth]], "''Der Dschihad: sich mühen für Gott''. In: Gernot Rotter, ''Die Welten des Islam: neunundzwanzig Vorschläge, das Unvertraute zu verstehen''{{-"}} (Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1993), p. 27</ref> ''jihad'' consisted of wars against unbelievers, [[Apostasy|apostated]], and was the only form of permissible warfare.<ref name="Khadduri"/>{{rp|74–80}} [[Bernard Lewis]] stated that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate, though not a form of ''jihad'',<ref name="lewis-2004-31">{{cite book |last1=Lewis|first1=Bernard|title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |date=2004 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group|page=31|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kE9LmS6QvacC}} |quote=According to Islamic law, it is lawful to wage war against four types of enemies: infidels, apostates, rebels, and bandits. Although all four types of war are legitimate, only the first two count as ''jihad''. |isbn=978-0812967852}}</ref> and that while the classical perception and presentation of ''jihad'' was warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internal ''jihad'' "against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown."<ref name="lewis-237">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Bernard |title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years |date=2000 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |pages=237–38 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=CjAABdA9z18C|page=237}} |access-date=30 September 2015 |isbn=9780684807126}}</ref>)

However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic, because it is God's province to judge who is worthy of that designation.<ref>According to [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] martyrdom is within God's exclusive province; only God can assess the intentions of individuals and the justness of their cause, and ultimately, whether they deserve the status of being a martyr. The Qur'anic text does not recognize the idea of unlimited warfare, and it does not consider the simple fact that one of the belligerents is Muslim to be sufficient to establish the justness of a war. Moreover, according to the Qur'an, war might be necessary, and might even become binding and obligatory, but it is never a moral and ethical good. The Qur'an does not use the word ''jihad'' to refer to warfare or fighting; such acts are referred to as ''qital''. While the Qur'an's call to ''jihad'' is unconditional and unrestricted, such is not the case for qital. ''Jihad'' is a good in and of itself, while qital is not. Source: {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl |first1=Khaled |author-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl |title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|date=23 January 2007|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ZcVOJYyT9aAC}}|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036}}</ref>{{rp|222–223}}

Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section called ''Book of Jihad'', with [[Rules of war in Islam|rules governing the conduct of war]] covered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamidullah |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=PHFvjl11z08C}}|title=The Muslim Conduct of State |date=2011 |publisher=The Other Press |isbn=978-967-5062-88-9 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|205–08}}<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|3}} and division of spoils.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|99}} Such rules offered protection for civilians.<ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{Cite journal|title=Armed ''Jihad'' in the Islamic Legal Tradition|first=Ahmed|last=Al-Dawoody|url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12071|date=27 August 2013|journal=Religion Compass|volume=7|issue=11|pages=476–484|doi=10.1111/rec3.12071|s2cid=143395594}}</ref> Spoils include ''[[Ghanimah]]'' (spoils obtained by actual fighting), and ''fai'' (obtained without fighting i.e. when the enemy surrenders or flees).<ref name="chaudhry-spoils">{{cite web|last1=Chaudhry|first1=Muhammad Sharif|title=Dynamics of Islamic ''Jihad'', Spoils of War|url=http://www.muslimtents.com/shaufi/b17/b176.htm|website=Muslim Tents|access-date=29 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411053917/http://www.muslimtents.com/shaufi/b17/b176.htm|archive-date=11 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first documentation of the law of ''jihad'' was written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i and [[Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani]]. (It grew out of debates that surfaced following Muhammad's death.<ref name="Peters-jihad-OEIW"/>) Although some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation of ''Jihad'', the consensus amongst them is that ''jihad'' always includes armed struggle against persecution and oppression.<ref name="jihad-ghamidi">{{cite book|last=Ghamidi|first=Javed|author-link=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi|title=Mizan|publisher=[[Al-Mawrid|Dar ul-Ishraq]]|chapter=The Islamic Law of ''Jihad''|chapter-url=http://www.javedahmadghamidi.com/renaissance/view/the-islamic-law-of-jihad-part-1-2|year=2001|oclc=52901690|title-link=Mizan}}</ref>

Both [[Ibn Taymiyya]] and [[Ibn Qayyim]] asserted that [[Muhammad]] never initiated hostilities and that all the wars he engaged in were primarily defensive. He never forced non-Muslims to Islam and upheld the truces with non-Muslims so long as they did not violate them. Ibn Taymiyya's views on ''Jihad'' are explained in his treatise titled ''Qāʿidah mukhtaṣarah fī qitāl al-kuffār wa muhādanatuhum wa taḥrīm qatlahum li mujarrad kufrihim''. (An abridged rule on fighting the unbelievers and making truces with them, and the prohibition of killing them merely because of their unbelief). According to Ibn Taymiyya, human blood is inviolable by default, except "by right of justice". Although Ibn Taymiyya authorised offensive ''Jihad'' ( ''Jihad al-Talab'') against enemies who threaten Muslims or obstruct their citizens from freely accepting Islam, unbelief (''[[Kufr]]'') by itself is not a justification for violence, whether against individuals or stated. According to Ibn Taymīyah, ''jihad'' is a legitimate reaction to military aggression by unbelievers and not merely due to religious differences. Ibn Taymiyya wrote:<blockquote>"As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought. Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war, as is practiced by the majority of scholars and is evident in the Book and Sunnah."<ref name="yaqeeninstitute.org"/><ref name=mqz>{{Cite book|last=QASIM ZAMAN|first=MUHAMMAD |title=Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Uf0fAwAAQBAJ}}
|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-107-09645-5| location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|265}}</blockquote>

As important as ''jihad'' was, it is not considered one of the "[[Five Pillars of Islam|pillars of Islam]]". According to one scholar ([[Majid Khadduri]], this is because the five pillars are individual obligations, but ''jihad'' is a "collective obligation" of the Muslim community meant to be carried out by the Islamic state. This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply to ''defense'' of the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which case ''jihad'' was an "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children.<ref name="Khadduri-1955-60">{{harvnb|Khadduri |1955}} {{cite book|chapter-url=https://actforamericaeducation.com/downloads/All_Files_by_Type/khadduri.pdf |access-date=26 October 2015 |chapter=5. Doctrine of ''Jihad'' |title=War and Peace in the Law of Islam |quote=[Unlike the five pillars of Islam, ''jihad'' was to be enforced by the state.] ... 'unless the Muslim community is subjected to a sudden attack and therefore all believers, including women and children are under the obligation to fight—[jihad of the sword] is regarded by all jurists, with almost no exception, as a collective obligation of the whole Muslim community,' meaning that 'if the duty is fulfilled by a part of the community it ceases to be obligatory on others'.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128192525/http://www.actforamericaeducation.com/downloads/All_Files_by_Type/khadduri.pdf |archive-date=28 November 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|60}}

Scholars had previously claimed it was the responsibility of a centralized government to organize ''jihad''. But this changed as the authority of the [[Abbasid caliph]] weakened.<ref name=OEIP_combat/> [[Al-Mawardi]] allowed local governors to wage ''jihad'' on the caliph's behalf. This decentralization of ''jihad'' became especially pressing after the Crusades. [[Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami]] argued that all Muslims were responsible for waging wars of self-defense.<ref name=OEIP_combat/> Al-Sulami encouraged Muslim rulers from distant lands to assist Muslims who were under attack.<ref name=OEIP_combat>{{cite encyclopedia|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=V7CUngEACAAJ}} |first1=James|last1=Broucek|title=Combat|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2014}}</ref>

Classical Shia doctrine maintained defensive ''jihad'' was always permissible, but offensive ''jihad'' required the presence of the Imam. An exception to this, during medieval times, was when the first Fatimid caliph [[Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah]] claimed to be the representative of the Imam and claimed the right to launch offensive ''jihad''.<ref name=Prism10/>{{rp|157}}

After the [[Mongol invasions]], Shia scholar [[Muhaqqiq al-Hilli]] claimed that defensive war was not just permissible but praiseworthy, even obligatory. If a Muslim could not take part in the defense then he should, at least, send material support. This remained the case even if the Muslims were ruled by an unjust ruler.<ref name=Prism10/>{{rp|153}}

====Early Muslim conquests====
{{main|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|350px|thumb|right|Age of the [[Caliph]]s {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622–632/A.H. 1–11}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661/A.H. 11–40}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750/A.H. 40–129}}]]

In the early era that inspired classical Islam ([[Rashidun Empire|Rashidun Caliphate]]) and lasted less than a century, ''jihad'' spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic".<ref name=Lewis/>{{rp|4}} The role of religion in these early conquests is debated. Medieval Arabic authors claimed the conquests were commanded by God, and presented them as orderly and disciplined, under the command of the caliph.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|60-61}} Many modern historians question whether hunger and [[desertification]], rather than ''jihad'', was a motivating force in the conquests. Historian [[William Montgomery Watt]] argued, "Most of the participants in the [early Islamic] expeditions probably thought of nothing more than booty ... There was no thought of spreading the religion of Islam."<ref name=AD11/>{{rp|87}} Similarly, Edward J. Jurji argues that the motivations of the Arab conquests were certainly not "the propagation of Islam....Military advantage, economic desires, [and] the attempt to strengthen the hand of the state and enhance its sovereignty...are some of the determining factors."<ref name=AD11/>{{rp|76}} Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|62-63}}

===Post-classical usage===
According to some authors,{{who|date=March 2016}} the more spiritual definitions of ''jihad'' developed sometime after the 150 years of ''jihad'' wars and Muslim territorial expansion, and particularly after the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invaders sacked Baghdad]] and overthrew the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}<ref>The early Muslim era of expansion (632–750 CE, or the [[Caliphate#Rashidun (632–661)|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] eras) preceded the "classical era" (750–1258 CE) which coincided with the beginning and the end of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].</ref> Historian [[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Hamilton Gibb]] stated, "in the historic [Muslim] Community the concept of ''jihad'' had gradually weakened and at length it had been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibb|first1=H.A.R. (Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen)|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=w4iWqgTzvp8C}}
|title=Mohammedanism|date=1969|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford}}</ref>{{rp|117}} notes that "despite the theoretical importance of the idea of ''jihad'' in classical Islamic juristic thought", by the time of the Abbasids, the concept was no longer central to [[politics|statecraft]].<ref name="johnson-147"/>

Rudolph Peters wrote that with the stagnation of Islamic expansionism, the concept of ''jihad'' became internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle.<ref name="Peters-jihad">{{cite book|last=Peters |first=Rudolph |title=Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader |publisher=Marcus Wiener |year=1996 |location=Princeton |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Lm4XnNtI_1wC}}
|isbn=978-9004048546 }}</ref>{{rp|187, note 52}} Earlier classical works on fiqh emphasized ''jihad'' as war for God's religion, Peters claimed. Later Islamic scholars like Ibn al-Amir al-San'ani, [[Muhammad Abduh]], [[Rashid Rida]], [[Ubaidullah Sindhi]], [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]], [[Shibli Nomani]], etc. emphasized the defensive aspect of ''jihad'', distinguishing between defensive ''jihad'' ( ''jihad al-daf'') and offensive ''jihad'' (''jihad al-talab'' or ''jihad'' of choice ). They refuted the notion of consensus that ''jihad al-talab'' was a communal obligation(''fard kifaya''). In support of this view, these scholars referred to the works of classical scholars such as [[Al-Jassas]] and [[Ibn Taymiyyah]]. According to Ibn Taymiyya, the reason for ''jihad'' against non-Muslims is not their disbelief, but the threat they pose to Muslims. Citing Ibn Taymiyya, scholars including Rashid Rida, Al San'ani, and Qaradawi argued that unbelievers need not be fought unless they pose a threat to Muslims. Thus, ''jihad'' is obligatory only as defensive warfare to respond to aggression or "perfidy" against the Muslim community, and that the "normal and desired state" between Islamic and non-Islamic territories was one of "peaceful coexistence". This was similar to the Western "[[Just war theory|Just war]]" concept.<ref name=mqz/>{{rp|71, 72, 227, 228, 263–265, 286, 315}}<ref name="Peters-jihad"/>{{rp|150}} Similarly 18th-century scholar [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] defined ''jihad'' as a defensive military action to protect the Muslim community, and emphasized its defensive aspect in synchrony with later 20th century Islamic writers.<ref>{{harvnb|DeLong-Bas|2004}} "In Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's writings, ''jihad'' is a special and specific type of warfare, which can be declared only by the religious leader (imam) and whose purpose is the defense of the Muslim community from aggression." .. "What Shaltut calls for here is not only a defensive response but also the right to live peacefully without fear for life, home, or possessions, all of which is consistent with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's assertion of ''jihad'' as a defensive activity designed to restore order and preserve life and property."... "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's definition of ''jihad'' is restricted to a defensive military action designed to protect and preserve the Muslim community and its right to practice its faith".. "For Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, ''jihad'' is always a defensive military action. Here he is synchronous with Islamic modernist writers, who narrow the confines of ''jihad'' to defensive action.."}}</ref>{{rp|230, 235, 241 }} Today, some Muslim authors only recognize as legitimate wars fought for the purpose of territorial defense as well as wars fought for the defense of [[Freedom of religion|religious freedom]].<ref name=Peters-jihad/>{{rp| 125}}

Ibn Taymiyyah's hallmark themes included the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law, the absolute division of the world into ''dar al-kufr'' and ''dar al-Islam'', labeling anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and the call for warfare against [[Kafir|Non-Muslims]], particularly Jews and Christians.<ref name=DeLong-Bas2004/>{{rp |[https://archive.org/details/wahhabiislamfrom0000delo/page/256 256] }}

Ibn Taymiyyah recognized "the possibility of a ''jihad'' against `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims within ''dar al-Islam''. He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (''bida''') contrary to the Qur'an and Sunna ... legitimated ''jihad'' against anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities." He used a broad definition of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would make ''jihad'' "not only permissible but necessary."<ref name=DeLong-Bas2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/wahhabiislamfrom0000delo/page/252 252] }} Ibn Taymiyyah paid careful attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits of ''jihad'': "It is in ''jihad'' that one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter. Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness."<ref name="Peters-jihad"/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/jihadinclassical00pete/page/48 48]}}

Bernard Lewis stated that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understood ''jihad'' to be a military endeavor,<ref name=Lewis-1988/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/politicallanguag00lewi_680/page/n80 72]}} after Islamic conquest stagnated and the caliphate divided into smaller stated, "irresistible and permanent ''jihad'' came to an end". As ''jihad'' became unfeasible it was "postponed from historic to messianic time."<ref name="Lewis-revolt">{{cite magazine|last1=Lewis|first1=Bernard|title=The Revolt of Islam|magazine=The New Yorker|date=19 November 2001|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/11/19/the-revolt-of-islam|access-date=28 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904075017/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2001/11/19/the-revolt-of-islam|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Even when the [[Ottoman Empire]] carried on a new holy war of expansion in the seventeenth century, "the war was not universally pursued". They made no attempt to recover Spain or Sicily.<ref name=jt1>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Dore|title=Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism|date=2012 |publisher=Regnery Publishing|page=24|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jT1xbK2EGRcC|page=24}}}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2016}}

By the 1500s, it had become accepted that the permanent state of relations between ''dar al-Islam'' and ''dar al-harb'' was that of peace.{{CN|date=September 2023}}

[[Shah Ismail]] of the [[Safavid dynasty]] tried to claim the right to wage offensive ''jihad'', particularly against the Ottomans. However, Shia ulama did not permit that, maintaining the classical position that the true Imam could wage such a war. During the Qajar period, Shia ulama adopted the position that the Shah was responsible for national security. They authorized the Perso-Russian wars in the 19th century as ''jihad''.<ref name=Prism10/>{{rp|158-159}}

In the 18th century, the [[Durrani Empire]] under the reigns of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] and his son and successor, [[Timur Shah Durrani]], had declared ''jihad''s against Sikh Misls in the [[Punjab]] region, often to consolidate territory and continue Afghan their region, efforts under Ahmad Shah failed, while Timur Shah had succeeded.<ref name="Fayz">{{cite journal |last1=Muhammad Katib Hazarah |first1=Fayz |title=The History Of Afghanistan Fayż Muḥammad Kātib Hazārah's Sirāj Al Tawārīkh By R. D. Mcchesney, M. M. Khorrami |journal=AAF |date=2012 |page=61 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-of-afghanistan-fayz-muhammad-katib-hazarahs-siraj-al-tawarikh-by-r.-/page/n255/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>

===Colonialism and modernism===
[[File:Fula jihad states map general c1830.png|thumb|The [[Fula jihads|Fulani jihad states]] of West Africa, c. 1830]]
When Europeans began to colonize the Muslim world, ''jihad'' was one of the first responses.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|157-158}} [[Emir Abdelkader]] organized a ''jihad'' in Algeria against French domination, tapping into existing Sufi networks.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|157-158}} Other wars were often declared to be ''jihad'': the [[Senussi]] religious order declared ''jihad'' against [[Italo-Turkish War|Italian control of Libya]] in 1912, and the "[[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdi]]" in [[Sudan]] declared [[Muhammad Ahmad#Advance of the rebellion|jihad]] against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] and [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egyptians]] in 1881.<ref name=OCAP />

[[Rashid Rida]] and [[Muhammad Abduh]] argued that peaceful coexistence should be the normal state between Muslim and non-Muslim stated, citing verses in the Qur'an that allowed war only in self-defense.<ref name="OEIP">{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Rudolph|last1=Peters|first2=David|last2=Cook |title=Jihād|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2014|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0057|doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|isbn=9780199739356|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123114402/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001/acref-9780199739356-e-0263|archive-date=23 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this view left open ''jihad'' against colonialism, which was seen as an attack on Muslims.<ref name="OEIP"/>

[[Sayyid Ahmad Khan]] argued that ''jihad'' was limited to cases of [[oppression]], and since the [[British Raj]] allowed [[freedom of religion]], ''jihad'' against the British was unnecessary.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|159-160}} Instead, Khan formulated ''jihad'' as recovering [[Islamic golden age|past Muslim scientific progress]] to modernize the Muslim world.<ref name=Bonner/>{{rp|159-160}}

A concept that played a role in anti-colonial ''jihad'' (or lack thereof) was the belief in ''[[Mahdi]]''.{{CN|date=September 2023}} According to Islamic [[eschatology]], a messianic figure named Mahdi will one day appear and restore justice on earth. This belief sometimes discouraged Muslims from conducting ''jihad'', instead inducing them to wait. Such messages were circulated in Algeria to undermine [[Emir Abdelkader]]'s ''jihad'' against the French.{{CN|date=September 2023}} Alternatively, this belief could be a powerful mobilizing force when someone proclaimed to be the Mahdi. Mahdist rebellions happened in India (1810), Egypt (1865) and Sudan (1881).{{CN|date=September 2023}}
[[File:The story of the greatest nations; a comprehensive history, extending from the earliest times to the present, founded on the most modern authorities, and including chronological summaries and (14596551060).jpg|thumb|Charging [[Mahdist War|Mahdist army]] during the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898]]
With the [[Islamic revival]], a new "[[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]]" movement arose, with different interpretations of Islam that increased emphasis on ''jihad''. The [[Wahhabi]] movement that spread across the [[Arabian peninsula]] starting in the 18th century emphasized ''jihad'' as armed struggle.<ref>{{harvnb|Gold|2012|pp=7–8}} "... the revival of ''jihad'', and its prioritization as a religious value, is found in the works of high-level Saudi religious officials like former chief justice Sheikh Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Humaid: `Jihad is a great deed indeed [and] there is no deed whose reward and blessing is as that of it, and for this reason, it is the best thing one can volunteer for."</ref> The [[Fula jihads]] in West Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries led to the establishment of various states, most notably the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. None of these movements were victorious.<ref name=Lewis/> The [[Sokoto Caliphate]] lasted for a century until it was conquered by the [[British Empire|British]] and incorporated into [[Colonial Nigeria]] in 1903.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Falola |first=Toyin |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Hd-Jp1t2n4sC}}|title=Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria |date=2009-09-25 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00339-3 |language=en}}</ref>

===Ottoman Jihad in World War One===
{{Main|1914 Ottoman jihad proclamation}}
[[File:Ottoman regimental flag at Kanlisirt.jpg|thumb|Ottoman soldiers with Ottoman [[Shahada]] Regimental Standard at Kanlisirt, [[Gallipoli campaign]] in 1915]]
When the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] caliph [[Declaration of jihad by the Ottoman Empire|called for a "Great ''Jihad''" Muslims against Allied powers during World War I]], hopes and fears emerged that non-Turkish Muslims would side with Ottoman Turkey, but the appeal did not unite the Muslim world,<ref name=Lewis-revolt/><ref name=jt1/>{{Rp|page=24}} and Muslims did not turn on their non-Muslim commanders in the Allied forces.<ref name="Ardic-2012-192">{{cite book|last1=Ardic|first1=Nurullah|title=Islam and the Politics of Secularism: The Caliphate and Middle Eastern ...|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|pages=192–93|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ZAXNxxkJKYsC|page=192}}|access-date=30 September 2015|isbn=9781136489846}}</ref> (The war led to the end of the caliphate as the Ottoman Empire allied with the war's losers and surrendered. Post-war capitulations were overturned by  secularist [[Mustafa Kemal]], who later abolished the caliphate.)<ref name=Kadri12/>{{rp|157}}

Prior to the Iranian revolution in 1922, Shiite cleric [[Mehdi Al-Khalissi]] issued a ''[[fatwa]]'' prohibiting Iraqis from participating in the Iraqi elections, as the Iraqi government had been established by foreign powers. He later played a role in the [[Iraqi revolt of 1920]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol8-no1/islamic-revolution-1920-iraq-zuhayr-sulayman/islamic-revolution-1920-iraq |title=The Islamic Revolution of 1920 |date=27 February 2013 |publisher=al-islam.org }}</ref> Between 1918 and 1919 in the Shia holy city of [[Najaf]] the League of the Islamic Awakening was established by religious scholars, tribal chiefs, and landlords who assassinated a British officer in the hopes of sparking a similar rebellion in [[Karbala]].{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

During the revolt, Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Shirazi, father of [[Mohammad al-Husayni al-Shirazi]] and grandfather of [[Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi]], declared British rule impermissible and called for ''jihad'' against European occupations in the Middle East.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

====Post-colonialism====
{{Main|Islamism|Criticism of Islamism}}
[[Islamism]] played an increasing role in the Muslim world in the 20th century, especially following the [[Financial crisis#20th century|economic crises of the 1970s and 1980s]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van Slooten |first=Pippi |date=April 2005 |title=Dispelling Myths About Islam and Jihad |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14631370500333013 |journal=Peace Review |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2–3 |pages=289–294 |doi=10.1080/14631370500333013 |issn=1040-2659}}</ref> One of the first Islamist groups, the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], emphasized physical struggle and [[Shahid|martyrdom]] in its creed: "God is our objective; the Qur'an is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (''jihad'') is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations."<ref name="sacred">{{cite book|last1=Benjamin|first1=Daniel|last2=Simon|first2=Steven|title=The Age of Sacred Terror|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofsacredterro00benj|url-access=registration|date=2002|publisher=Random House|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofsacredterro00benj/page/57 57]|isbn=9780375508592}}</ref><ref name="slogan">{{cite web|title=Article eight of the Hamas Covenant. The Slogan of the Islamic Resistance Movement|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp|website=Yale Law School. Avalon Project|publisher=Yale Law School|access-date=7 September 2014|quote=Allah is its target, the Prophet is its model, the Koran its constitution: ''Jihad'' is its path and death for the sake of Allah is the loftiest of its wishes.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307133603/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp|archive-date=7 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hassan al-Banna]] emphasized ''jihad'' of the sword, and called on Egyptians to ''jihad'' against the [[British Empire]],
<ref name=Banna78/>{{rp|150, 155}} (the first influential scholar since the 1857 India uprising to do so).<ref name=Kadri12/>{{rp|158}} The group called for ''jihad'' against [[Israel]] in the 1940s,<ref name="Al-Khatib">{{cite book|last1=Al-Khatib|first1=Ibrahim|title=The Muslim Brotherhood and Palestine: Letters To Jerusalem|date=2012|publisher=scribedigital.com|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=6RdWFL8sbpIC|page=14}}|access-date=7 September 2014|quote=The Muslim Brothers believed a well-planned ''Jihad'' to be the only means to liberate Palestine. Its press confirmed that ''Jihad'' became an individual obligation upon every Muslim ... [who would] gain one of the two desirable goals (i.e. gaining victory or dying martyrs). The jurists of the Group issued a fatwa during the 1948 War that Muslims had to postpone pilgrimage and offer their money for ''Jihad'' (in Palestine) instead.|isbn=978-1780410395}}</ref> and its Palestinian branch, [[Hamas]], called for ''jihad'' against Israel during the [[First Intifada]].<ref name="Abū ʻAmr">{{cite book|last1=Abū ʻAmr|first1=Z.|author-link=Ziyād Abū ʻAmr|title=Islamic Fundamentalism in the West Bank and Gaza: Muslim Brotherhood and ..|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1994|page=23|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jrTG5sdLHD8C|page=23}}|quote=According to the [Muslim Brotherhood] society, the ''jihad'' for Palestine will start after the completion of the Islamic transformation of Palestinian society, the completion of the process of Islamic revival, and the return to Islam in the region. Only then can the call for ''jihad'' be meaningful, because the Palestinians cannot along liberate Palestine without the help of other Muslims.|isbn=978-0253208668}}</ref><ref name="miller-387">But according to [[Judith Miller]], the MB changed its mind with the intifada. {{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Judith|title=God Has Ninety-Nine Names: Reporting from a Militant Middle East|publisher=Simon & Schuster|page=387|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=tH_ThgVEoAcC|page=387}}|quote=Sheikh Yasin had initially argued in typical Muslim Brotherhood tradition that violent ''jihad'' against Israel would be counterproductive until Islamic regimes had been established throughout the Muslim realm. But the outbreak of the Intifada changed his mind: Islamic reconquest would have to start rather than end with ''jihad'' in Palestine. So stated the Hamas covenant.|isbn=978-1439129418|date=19 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Hamas Covenant">{{cite web|title=Hamas Covenant 1988|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp|website=Yale Law School Avalon Project|access-date=7 September 2014|quote=[part of Article 13 of the Covenant] There is no solution for the Palestinian question except through ''Jihad''. Initiatives, proposals and international conferences are all a waste of time and vain endeavors.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307133603/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/hamas.asp|archive-date=7 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Modern Muslim thought had been focused on when to go to war (''[[jus ad bellum]]''), not paying much attention on conduct during war (''[[jus in bello]]''). This was because most Muslim theorists viewed [[international humanitarian law]] as consistent with Islamic requirements. However, Muslims later discussed conduct during war in response to [[terrorist]] groups who targeted civilians.<ref name=hashmi/>{{rp|[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=1jcCwXo3CCgC|page=14}}|14]}}

According to [[Rudolph F. Peters]] and [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas]], the new "fundamentalist" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings on ''jihad''. These writings tended to be less involved with the different of schools of Islamic law, or in solutions for all potential situations. "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesser ''jihad'' because it distracted Muslims "from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences".<ref name=DeLong-Bas2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/wahhabiislamfrom0000delo/page/240 240–41] }}<ref name="Peters-jihad"/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/jihadinclassical00pete/page/127 127]}}

Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists were often influenced by the ideas of Ibn Taymiyyah, and Egyptian journalist [[Sayyid Qutb]].
[[File:Sayyid Qutb.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Sayyid Qutb]], Islamist author and influential leader of the Muslim Brotherhood]]
Qutb preached in his book ''[[Ma'alim fi al-Tariq|Milestones]]'' that ''jihad'', “is not a temporary phase but a permanent war ... ''Jihad'' for freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto.”<ref name="Milestones"/>{{rp|125–26}}<ref name=DeLong-Bas2004/>{{rp|264}} Qutb focused on martyrdom and ''jihad'', adding the theme of treachery and enmity towards Islam of [[Ma'alim fi al-Tariq#Western and Jewish Conspiracies|Christians and especially Jews]]. If non-Muslims were waging a "war against Islam", ''jihad'' against them was defensive, not offensive. He insisted that Christians and Jews were ''[[Shirk (Islam)|mushrikeen]]'' (not monotheists) because (he alleged) they gave their priests or rabbis "authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them [and] not permitted by God" and "obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship".<ref name="Milestones">{{cite book|last1=Qutb|first1=Sayyid|title=Milestones|url=http://www.izharudeen.com/uploads/4/1/2/2/4122615/milestones_www.izharudeen.com.pdf|pages=82, 60|access-date=7 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813061043/http://www.izharudeen.com/uploads/4/1/2/2/4122615/milestones_www.izharudeen.com.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Symon">{{cite news|last1=Symon|first1=Fiona|title=Analysis: The roots of ''jihad''|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1603178.stm|publisher=BBC|access-date=7 September 2014|date=16 October 2001|quote=For Qutb, all non-Muslims were infidels—even the so-called "people of the book", the Christians and Jews—and he predicted an eventual clash of civilisations between Islam and the west.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907115409/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1603178.stm|archive-date=7 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Later ideologue, [[Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj]], departed from some of Qutb's teachings. While Qutb felt that ''jihad'' was a proclamation of "liberation for humanity" (in which humanity has the free choice between Islam and unbelief), Faraj saw ''jihad'' as a mean of conquering the world and reestablishing the [[caliphate]].<ref name=Cook05/>{{rp| 107-108}} Faraj legitimized lying, attacking by night (even accidentally killing innocents), and destroying trees of the infidel.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jansen |first=Johannes J. G. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=O8trAAAAIAAJ}}|title=The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East |date=1986 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-916340-5 |language=en}} Includes a facsimile of ''al-Farida al-gha'iba'' (The Neglected Duty) by Muhammad 'Abd al-Salam Faraj.</ref><ref name=Cook05/>{{rp| 190, 192}} His ideas influenced Egyptian Islamist extremist groups,<ref name="Gerges"/>{{rp|9}} and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], later the leader of [[al-Qaeda]].<ref name="Gerges"/>{{rp|11}}

During the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]], and although it was predominantly [[Sunni]], Afghanistan's [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shiite population]] took arms against the [[Communist]] government and allied [[Soviet forces]] and the nation's Sunnis and were collectively referred to as the Afghan [[Mujahideen#Afghanistan|Mujahideen]]. Shiite jihadists in Afghanistan were known as the [[Tehran Eight]] and received support from the [[Iranian government]] in fighting the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Communist Afghan government]] and allied Soviet forces in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Afghan-War|title=Afghan War &#124; History & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=24 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/147 147]|title=Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban|first=Larry P.|last=Goodson|date=10 August 2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=9780295980508}}</ref>

====Terrorism====
Many Muslims, including scholars like [[al-Qaradawi]] and [[Sayyid Tantawi]], denounced Islamic terrorist attacks against [[civilian]]s, seeing them as contrary to rules of ''jihad'' that prohibit targeting [[noncombatant]]s.<ref name= "OEIP_combat"/> After the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001, the United States blamed [[Saudi Arabia]]n [[Osama bin Laden]] and the [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]], triggering bin Laden, who in turn on October 7 issued a televised message, declaring "Allah had blessed a vanguard group of Muslims, the spearhead of Islam, to destroy America." American and British forces were deployed around Afghanistan, and [[Mullah]] [[Mullah Omar|Mohammad Omar]], also the Commander to the Faithful of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, in turn called the world's Muslims to join him in ''jihad''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kepel |first=Gilles |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=tttzgNKFAI8C}}|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01090-1 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|2}}

====Abdullah Azzam====
{{Main|Abdullah Azzam}}
In the 1980s [[Abdullah Azzam]] advocated waging ''jihad'' against the "unbelievers".<ref name="Riedel">{{cite web|last1=Riedel|first1=Bruce|title=The 9/11 Attacks' Spiritual Father|url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2011/09/11-riedel|date=11 September 2011|publisher=Brooking|access-date=6 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021192758/http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2011/09/11-riedel|archive-date=21 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Azzam issued a [[fatwa]] calling for ''jihad'' against the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet occupation of Afghanistan]], declaring it an obligation for all able-bodied Muslims to repel invaders. His fatwa was endorsed by others, including [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Blanchard|first=Christopher M|title=Saudi Arabia: Background and U. S. Relations|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=J0WWUQBl2PwC|page=27}}|date=November 2010|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-1-4379-2838-9|page=27}}</ref> Azzam saw Afghanistan as the beginning of ''jihad'' to repel unbelievers from many countries—the [[Former Soviet Republics|southern Soviet Republics]] of Central Asia, [[Bosnia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Kashmir]], [[Somalia]], [[Eritrea]], Spain, and especially his home country of Palestine.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=8dCnb4uR63EC}}|title=The Looming Tower |date=2006-08-08 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-26608-8 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=8dCnb4uR63EC|page=130}} 130]}} The Soviet defeat in Afghanistan is said to have "amplified the jihadist tendency from a fringe phenomenon to a major force in the Muslim world."<ref name=Commins>{{Cite book |last=Commins |first=David |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=cNuRDwAAQBAJ}}|title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |date=2005-12-20 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85771-780-1 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|174}} Many fighters returned to their home countries to continue ''jihad'', participating in insurgencies and later creating a "transnational jihadist stream."<ref name=Commins/>{{rp|156–57}}

Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill, which may have influenced students such as bin Laden.<ref name=jt1/> He argued, based on his interpretation of the [[hadith]], that it is a sin to not wage offensive ''jihad'' against the [[Kafir|unbelievers]] in [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-harb|non-Muslim lands]], continuing until only those who submit to Islam remain; expelling unbelievers from [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Islam|Muslim lands]], contrastingly, is defensive ''jihad''.<ref name="Azzam-DOTML">{{cite book | last=Azzam | first=Abdullah |author-link=Abdullah Azzam| title=Defense of the Muslim Lands: The first Obligation After Iman | publisher=Islamic Books | url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EDoeN1r3PjQC}}| access-date=8 July 2024 }}</ref> In February 1998, bin Laden put a "Declaration of the World Islamic Front for ''Jihad'' against the Jews and the Crusaders" in the ''Al-Quds al-Arabi'' newspaper.<ref name=OBL-jihad>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |date=1998 |title=License to Kill: Usama Bin Ladin's Declaration of Jihad |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20049126 |journal=Foreign Affairs |language=en |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=14–19 |doi=10.2307/20049126|jstor=20049126}}</ref> He later organised the [[September 11 attacks]] against the United States.

===Shia===
In [[Shia Islam]], ''jihad'' is one of the ten [[Practices of the Religion]]<ref name="practices">{{cite web |title=Part 2: Islamic Practices |url=http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907022817/http://www.al-islam.org/invitation-to-islam-moustafa-al-qazwini/part-2-islamic-practices |archive-date=7 September 2014 |access-date=27 August 2014 |publisher=al-Islam.org}}</ref> (though not one of the five pillars). Traditionally, [[Twelver]] Shi'a doctrine differed from that of [[Sunni Islam]] on the concept of ''jihad'', with ''jihad'' seen as a "lesser priority" in Shia theology and "armed activism" by Shias "limited to a person's immediate geography".<ref name="nationalae">{{cite news|last1=Hassan|first1=Hassan |title=The rise of Shia ''jihad''ism in Syria will fuel sectarian fires |url=http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/the-rise-of-shia-jihadism-in-syria-will-fuel-sectarian-fires |access-date=27 August 2014|work=The National|location=Abu Dhabi|issue=5 June 2013}}</ref>

Because of their history of oppression, Shias also associated ''jihad'' with certain passionate features, notably in the remembrance of [[Ashura]]. [[Mahmoud M. Ayoub]] says:

<blockquote>In Islamic tradition ''jihad'' or the struggle in the way of God, whether as armed struggle, or any form of opposition of the wrong, is generally regarded as one of the essential requirements of a person's faith as a Muslim. Shi'î tradition carried this requirement a step further, making ''jihad'' one of the pillars or foundations (arkan) of religion. If, therefore, [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn]]'s struggle against the Umayyad regime must be regarded as an act of ''jihad'', then, In the mind of devotees, the participation of the community in his suffering and its ascent to the truth of his message must also be regarded as an extension of the holy struggle of the Imam himself. The ''hadith'' from which we took the title of this chapter stated this point very clearly. [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] is said to have declared to [[al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi|al-Mufaddal]], one of his closest disciples, 'The sigh of the sorrowful for the wrong done us is an act of praise ([[tasbih]]) [of God], his sorrow for us is an act of worship, and his keeping of our secret is a struggle (''jihad'') in the way of God'; the Imâm then added, 'This [[hadith]] should be inscribed in letters of gold'.<ref name=WDG>{{Cite book |last=Ayoub |first=Mahmoud M. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=rpaPWv5Iyd8C}}|title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |date=2011-07-26 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-080331-0 |language=en|authorlink=Walter de Gruyter}}</ref>{{rp|142}}</blockquote>

and

<blockquote>Hence, the concept of ''jihad'' (holy struggle) gained a deeper and more personal meaning. Whether through weeping, the composition and recitation of poetry, showing compassion and doing good to the poor or carrying arms, the Shi'i Muslim saw himself helping the Imam in his struggle against the wrong ([[zulm]]) and gaining for himself the same merit ([[thawab]]) of those who actually fought and died for him. The [[ta'ziyah]], in its broader sense the sharing of the entire life of the suffering family of Muhammad, has become for the Shi'i community the true meaning of compassion.<ref name=WDG/>{{rp|148}}</blockquote>

In the [[Syrian civil war]], Shia and Sunni fighters waged ''jihad'' against each other.<ref name=RF17/> In Yemen, the [[Houthi]] Movement used appeals to ''jihad'' as part of their ideology as well as their recruitment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2019/06/20/yemen-houti-child-soldiers-noammar-al-eryani/|title=Houthis recruit 50,000 Yemen child soldiers in 3 months, minister says|date=20 June 2019|website=The Defense Post}}</ref>