Editing James Joyce (section)

==1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin==
===Rome===
[[File:Roma - Campo de' Fiori.jpg|thumb|Monument to [[Giordano Bruno]] at the [[Campo de' Fiori]] by [[Ettore Ferrari]]. Joyce admired Bruno{{sfn|JJC|2014}} and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome.{{sfn|Joyce|1966a|p=[https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/218 218]|ps=: Letter to Stanislaus Joyce, 1 March 1907}}]]
In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/222 222]|Ellmann|1982|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/222 222]}} Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for ''Dubliners'', Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|pp= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 9–10]}} He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July.{{sfn|Onorati|1984|p=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 24–26]}}

Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|pp= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 10–11]}} but it had a large impact on his writing.{{sfn|Spoo|1988|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831561?seq=1 481–482]}} Though his new job took up most of his time, he revised ''Dubliners'' and worked on ''Stephen Hero''.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/160 160]; [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/163 163]}} Rome was the birthplace of the idea for "[[The Dead (Joyce short story)|The Dead]]", which would become the final story of ''Dubliners'',{{sfnm|Costello|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/270 270]|Ellmann|1958|2pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899&seq=3 509], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899&seq=5 511]}} and for ''Ulysses'',{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/162 163]|Humphreys|1979|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476189?seq=12 252]}} which was originally conceived as a short story.{{efn|In October, Joyce wrote "I have a new story for ''Dubliners'' in my head. It deals with Mr. [Alfred] Hunter", the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904. In November, he first mentioned the title of the story as "Ulysses", and in Feb 1907, he mentioned "Ulysses" along with "The Dead" and three other stories that never appeared.{{sfn|Joyce|1966a|pp= [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/168 168], [https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/190 190],[https://archive.org/details/lettersofjamesjo0000joyc/page/209 209]|ps=: Letters to Stanislaus Joyce, 4 October 1906, 13 November 1906, 6 February 1907, respectively.}}}} His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for ''Exiles''.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/50 50]|Costello|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/270 270]}} While there, he read the socialist historian [[Guglielmo Ferrero]] in depth.{{sfn|McCourt|2000|pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/68 68–69]}} Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews{{sfn|Nadel|1986|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396219?seq=2 302]}} would find their way into ''Ulysses'', particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/230 230]|Humphreys|1979|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476189?seq=12 252]|Manganiello|1980|3p =[https://archive.org/details/joycespolitics0000mang/page/52 52]|Melchiori|1984b|4p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 43]}} In London, [[Elkin Mathews]] published ''Chamber Music'' on the recommendation of the British poet [[Arthur Symons]].{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/160 160], [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/162 162]|Melchiori|1984a|2p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 10]}} Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.{{sfn|Shloss|2005|pp= [https://archive.org/details/luciajoycetodanc0000shlo_d2b8/page/46 46–47]}} He left Rome after only seven months.{{sfn|Melchiori|1984a|p= [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209102032/https://thejamesjoyceitalianfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/joyceinromeweb.pdf 11]}}

===Second stay in Trieste===
[[File:SS Thalia vor 1907 mit Segeln (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Trieste, ca. 1907|alt=Photograph of Trieste filled with ships around 1907 viewing the city from out in the harbor]]
Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/166 166]}} The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen name [[Italo Svevo]], was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.{{sfn|Staley|1964|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486462?seq=3 61]}} Joyce learned much of what he knew about [[Judaism]] from him.{{sfnm|Ellmann|1982|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/272 272]|Nadel|1986|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396219?seq=1 301]}} The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.{{sfnm|Staley|1963|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/476822?seq=1 334]|Rocco-Bergera|1972|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26278931?seq=1 116] }} Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block with ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/176 176]|Davison|1994|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3194849?seq=2 70]}} Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaper ''[[Il Piccolo|Piccolo della Sera]]'', was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian [[irredentists]] in Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle against [[British rule in Ireland]].{{sfnm|Bulson|2006|1p=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeintrodu0000buls/page/8 8]|Costello|1992|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/271 271]|Gibson|2006|3pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/84 84–85]|Mason|1956|4p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/440499?seq=3 117]}} Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at
Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,{{sfnm|Gibson|2006|1pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/84 84–85]|McCourt|2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/92 92]}} as well as on [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Hamlet]]''.{{sfn|Quillian|1974|p=7}}

In May, Joyce was struck by an attack of [[rheumatic fever]],{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/169 169]|Beja|1992|2p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/50 50]|Costello|1992|3p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceyearso0000cost_l4b7/page/274 274]|Davies|1982|4p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/176 176]|Ellmann|1982|5p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/262 262]}} which left him incapacitated for weeks.{{efn|Following [[Richard Ellmann]]'s biography, a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever,{{sfn|McCourt|2019|pp=[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA536|plainurl=yes}} 536]–[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA537|plainurl=yes}} 537]}} but evidence suggests that [[syphilis]] may have been the cause.{{sfn|Schneider|2001|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25477818?&seq=17 469]}} It may have been the cause of Joyce's eye problems too.{{sfnm|Birmingham|2014|1pp=[https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5/page/289 289–290]|Davies|1982|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/391 391–392]|Ferris|1995|3p= [{{Google books|id=C68eBgAAQBAJ|pg=PA5|plainurl=yes}} 5]|Hayden|2003|4pp=[https://archive.org/details/poxgeniusmadness0000hayd_b5i5/page/241 241–242]|McCourt|2019|5p=[{{Google books|id=u2ZuDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA537|plainurl=yes}} 537]}} The physician [[J. B. Lyons]] makes a case that the cause was [[Reiter's syndrome]],{{sfn|Lyons|1973|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycemedici0000lyon/page/205 205]}} though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection.{{sfn|Lyons|2000|p=306|ps=: "The iritis may have been caused by{{nbsp}}... Reiter's disease. This follows a chlamydial infection; This may have been acquired during a carousal{{nbsp}}... on his return to Trieste from Rome."}} }} The illness exacerbated [[uveitis|eye problems]] that plagued him for the rest of his life.{{sfnm|Birmingham|2014|1p= [https://archive.org/details/mostdangerousboo0000birm_n8r5/page/256 256]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/268 28]}} While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/168 168]|Pelaschiar|1999|2pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473993?&seq=6 66–67]}}{{efn|Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/262 262]}}}} During his convalescence, he was able to finish "The Dead", the last story of ''Dubliners''.{{sfn|Ellmann|1958|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4333899?seq=6 512 512.]}}

Although a heavy drinker,{{sfn|Briggs|2011|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598883 637]|ps=:(cf., {{harvnb|Kelly|2011|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598882?&seq=24 626]}})}} Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/173 173]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/268 268]}} He reworked ''Stephen Hero'' as the more concise and interior ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''. He completed the third chapter by April{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/176 173]}} and translated [[John Millington Synge]]'s ''[[Riders to the Sea]]'' into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.{{sfn|Bollettieri Bosinelli|2013|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24598738?seq=2 1115]}} He even took singing lessons again.{{sfnm|1a1=Hodgart|1a2=Bauerle|1y=1997|1p =[https://archive.org/details/joycesgrandopero0006hodg/page/52 52]|2a=McCourt|2y=2000|2p= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/131 131]|3a=Pelaschiar|3y=1999|3p =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25473993?&seq=6 66]}} Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for ''Dubliners'' but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned by [[George Roberts (publisher)|George Roberts]].{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/267 267]}}

====Visits to Dublin====
[[File:Ireland yesterday and today (1909) (14587087809).jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Dublin in 1909|alt=Dublin in 1909, with trams, horsecarts, and pedestrians]]
In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/276 276]}} He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his [[alma mater]], which had become University College Dublin.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/181 181]}} He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing ''Dubliners''.{{sfn|Hutton|2003|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682 495]}} He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.{{sfn|Davies|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyceportra1982davi/page/195 195–196]}} Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, the [[Volta Cinematograph]].{{sfn|Sicker|2006|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25570961 99–100]}} It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.{{sfn|McCourt|2000|pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/146 146]–[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/146 147]}} He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/190 180–191]}}{{efn|Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year,{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/410 310]}} but Eileen stayed on the continent, eventually marrying a [[Czech people|Czech]] bank cashier, Frantisek Schaurek.{{sfnm|Delimata|1981|1p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405 45]|Ellmann|1982|2pp=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/384 384–385]}} The Irish actor [[Paddy Joyce]] is their son.{{sfn|Delimata|1981|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405?seq=4 48], [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25476405?seq=18 62]}} }}

From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.{{sfn|Ellmann|1982|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/311 311–313]}} In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.{{sfn|JMT|2013}} Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the [[University of Padua]].{{sfn|Berrone|Joyce|1976|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3830952 3]}} He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In mid-1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/198 198–199]}} While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication of ''Dubliners''{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/206 206]}} came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.{{efn|It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters of ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' into a stove fire, only to have it rescued by Eileen.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/197 197]}} }} When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, "Gas from a Burner".{{sfn|Joyce|1959|pp=[https://archive.org/details/criticalwritings00joyc/page/242 242–245]|ps=: "Gas from a Burner"}} He never went to Dublin again.{{sfn|Bowker|2012|pp= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/204 204–205]}}

====Publication of ''Dubliners'' and ''A Portrait'' ====
Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish ''Dubliners''. It was issued on 15 June 1914,{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/212 212]}} eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.{{sfn|Hutton|2003|pp= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24295682 495–496]}} Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate in [[Ezra Pound]], who was living in London.{{efn|The literary critic [[Mary Colum]], who was personally well-acquainted with Joyce, reports him as saying: "Pound took me out of the gutter."{{sfn|Colum|1947|p= [https://archive.org/details/LifeAndTheDream/page/n395 383]}} }} On the advice of Yeats,{{sfn|Gibson|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce00gibs/page/93 93]}} Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from ''Chamber Music'', "I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land" in the journal ''[[Des Imagistes]]''. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were published and publicised.{{sfnm|Kelly|1993|1p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/26635100 21]|Walkiewicz|1982|2p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24725366?seq=2 512]}}

After Pound persuaded [[Dora Marsden]] to [[Serial (literature)|serially]] publish ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' in the London literary magazine ''[[The Egoist (periodical)|The Egoist]]'',{{sfn|Bowker|2012|p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/211 211]}} Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completed ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' by 1914;{{sfn|Gabler|1974|p =[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40371587 1]}} resumed ''Exiles'', completing it in 1915;{{sfn|Brivic|1968|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25486737 29]}} started the novelette ''[[Giacomo Joyce]]'', which he eventually abandoned;{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p = [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/214 214]|McCourt|2000|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/196 196–197]}} and began drafting ''Ulysses''.{{sfnm|Bowker|2012|1p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk/page/217 217]|Ellmann|1982|2p= [https://archive.org/details/jamesjoyce0000ellm_n2o5/page/389 389]|McCourt|2000|3p=[https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/246 246]}}

In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,{{sfn|Spoo|1986|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/441379?&seq=2 137]}} and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zurich in neutral Switzerland.{{sfnm|Beja|1992|1p=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjoycelitera0000beja/page/71 71]|McCourt|2000|2pp= [https://archive.org/details/yearsofbloomjame0000mcco/page/245 245–247]}}