Editing Indo-European languages (section)

== Evolution ==

=== Proto-Indo-European ===
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European language}}
[[File:Indo-European expansions.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35| Scheme of Indo-European language dispersals from c.&nbsp;4000 to 1000&nbsp;BC, according to the widely held [[Kurgan hypothesis]].<br />– Center: Steppe cultures<br />1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE)<br />2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE)<br />3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE)<br />4A (black): Western Corded Ware<br />4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers<br />5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware<br />5C (red): Sintashta (Proto-Indo-Iranian)<br />6 (magenta): Andronovo<br />7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani)<br />7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India)<br />[NN] (dark yellow): Proto-Balto-Slavic<br />8 (grey): Greek<br />9 (yellow):Iranians<br />– [not drawn]: Armenian, expanding from western steppe]]
The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the [[Comparative method|reconstructed]] common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of [[internal reconstruction]], an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed.

PIE is an [[inflected language]], in which the grammatical relationships between words were signalled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The [[root (linguistics)|roots]] of PIE are basic [[morpheme]]s carrying a [[lexical (semiotics)|lexical]] meaning. By addition of [[suffix]]es, they form [[stem (linguistics)|stems]], and by addition of [[Ending (linguistics)|endings]], these form grammatically inflected words ([[Indo-European noun|nouns]] or [[Indo-European verb|verbs]]). The reconstructed [[Indo-European verb]] system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of [[ablaut]].

=== Diversification ===
{{See also|Indo-European migrations}}
The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of [[Indo-European origins]].

Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, [[Donald Ringe]] and [[Tandy Warnow]] propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches:{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=56–58}}
* Pre-[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] (before 3500&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]
* Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (before 2500&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Armenian and Pre-Greek (after 2500&nbsp;BC)
* Proto-[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (2000&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Germanic and Pre-Balto-Slavic;{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=56–58}} Proto-Germanic {{Circa|500&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}{{sfn|Ringe|2006|p=67}}

David Anthony proposes the following sequence:{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=100}}
* Pre-[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] (4200&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]] (3700&nbsp;BC)
* [[Germanic parent language|Pre-Germanic]] (3300&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic (3000&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Armenian (2800&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Balto-Slavic (2800&nbsp;BC)
* Pre-Greek (2500&nbsp;BC)
* Proto-[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (2200&nbsp;BC); split into Iranian and Old Indic 1800&nbsp;BC

From 1500&nbsp;BC the following sequence may be given:{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}
* 1500–1000&nbsp;BC: The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] of [[Scandinavia]] develops [[pre-Proto-Germanic]], and the (pre-) Proto-Celtic [[Urnfield]] and [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the [[Iron Age]]. Migration of the Proto-[[Italic languages|Italic]] speakers into the Italian peninsula ([[Bagnolo stele]]). [[Indo-Aryan migrations|Migration of Aryans to India]] followed by the redaction of the [[Rigveda]]; rise of the [[Vedic civilization]] and [[Iron Age in India|beginning of Iron Age]] in the [[Punjab]]. The [[Mycenaean civilization]] gives way to the [[Greek Dark Ages]]. Hittite goes extinct. [[Iranian languages|Iranian speakers]] start migrating southwards to [[Greater Iran]]. [[Balto-Slavic]] splits into ancestors of modern [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]].
* 1000–500&nbsp;BC: The [[Celtic languages]] spread over Central and Western Europe, including [[Great Britain|Britain]]. [[Baltic languages]] are spoken in a huge area from present-day Poland to [[Moscow]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vijay |first1=John |last2=Slocum |first2=Jonathan |date=10 November 2008 |title=Indo-European Languages: Balto-Slavic Family |publisher=Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas |access-date=7 August 2010 |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie-lg/Balto-Slavic.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604200234/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie-lg/Balto-Slavic.html |archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> [[Germanic parent language|Pre-Proto-Germanic]] gives rise to [[Proto-Germanic]] in southern Scandinavia. [[Homer]] and the beginning of [[Classical Antiquity]]. The Vedic civilization gives way to the [[Mahajanapadas]] as the Indo-Aryan tongue reaches eastwards, giving rise to the [[Greater Magadha]] cultural sphere, where [[Mahavira]] preaches [[Jainism]] and [[Siddhartha Gautama]] preaches [[Buddhism]]. [[Zoroaster]] composes the [[Gathas]], rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], replacing the [[Elamites]] and [[Babylonia]]. Separation of Proto-Italic into [[Osco-Umbrian]], [[Latin-Faliscan languages|Latin-Faliscan]], and possibly [[Venetic]] and [[Siculian]]. A variety of [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] besides Greek are spoken in Southern Europe, including [[Thracian language|Thracian]], [[Dacian language|Dacian]] and [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], and in [[Anatolia]] ([[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]). Development of [[Prakrits]] across the northern Indian subcontinent, as well as migration of Indo-Aryan speakers to [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]].
* 500–1&nbsp;BC: [[Classical Antiquity]]: spread of [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] throughout the Mediterranean and, during the [[Hellenistic period]] ([[Indo-Greeks]]), to Central Asia and the [[Hindukush]]. The Magadhan power and influence rises in ancient India, especially with the conquests of the [[Nanda Empire|Nandan]] and [[Mauryan empire]]s. Germanic speakers start migrating southwards to occupy formerly Celtic territories. [[Scythian cultures]] extend from Eastern Europe ([[Scythians|Pontic Scythians]]) to Northwest China ([[Ordos culture]]).
* 1&nbsp;BC – AD 500: [[Late Antiquity]], [[Gupta period]]; attestation of [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. [[Proto-Slavic]]. The [[Roman Empire]] and then the [[Germanic migrations]] marginalize the Celtic languages to the British Isles. [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]], an [[eastern Iranian language]], becomes the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[Silk Road]] in Central Asia leading to China, due to the proliferation of [[Sogdia]]n merchants there. Greek settlements and [[Byzantine]] rule make the last Anatolian languages [[language death|extinct]]. [[Turkic languages]] start replacing [[Scythian languages]].
* 500–1000: [[Early Middle Ages]]. The [[Viking Age]] forms an Old Norse [[Koiné language|koine]] spanning Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. Phrygian becomes extinct. The [[Islamic conquests]] and the [[Turkic expansion]] result in the [[Arabization]] and [[Turkification]] of significant areas where Indo-European languages were spoken, but [[Persian language|Persian]] still develops under Islamic rule and extends into [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. Due to further [[Turkic migrations]], [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]] becomes fully extinct while Scythian languages are overwhelmingly replaced. Slavic languages spread over wide areas in central, eastern and southeastern Europe, largely replacing Romance in the Balkans (with the exception of Romanian) and whatever was left of the [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] with the exception of Albanian. Pannonian Basin is taken by the [[Magyars]] from the western [[Slavs]].
* 1000–1500: [[Late Middle Ages]]: Attestation of [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Baltic languages|Baltic]]. Modern dialects of Indo-European languages start emerging.
* 1500–2000: [[Early modern Europe|early modern period]] to present: Colonialism results in the spread of Indo-European languages to every habitable continent, most notably [[Romance language|Romance]] (North, Central and South America, North and Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia), [[West Germanic]] ([[English language|English]] in North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and Australia; to a lesser extent Dutch and German), and [[Russian language|Russian]] to Central Asia and North Asia.

=== Key languages for reconstruction ===
In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly [[conservative (language)|linguistically conservative]] (most notably, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid [[poetic meter]] normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. [[vowel length]]) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written [[manuscript]]s.

Most noticeably:{{sfn|Beekes|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA30 p. 30], [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA13 Skt: 13], [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA20 Hitt: 20], [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA24 Gk: 24]}}
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ({{Circa|1500–500&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}). This language is unique in that its source documents were all composed orally, and were passed down through [[oral tradition]] ([[shakha]] schools) for c. 2,000 years before ever being written down. The oldest documents are all in poetic form; oldest and most important of all is the [[Rigveda]] ({{Circa|1500&nbsp;BC|lk=no}})).
* [[Ancient Greek]] ({{Circa|750–400&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}). [[Mycenaean Greek]] ({{Circa|1450&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}) is the oldest recorded form, but its value is lessened by the limited material, restricted subject matter, and highly ambiguous writing system. More important is Ancient Greek, documented extensively beginning with the two [[Homeric poems]] (the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', {{Circa|750&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}).
* [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ({{Circa|1700–1200&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}). This is the earliest-recorded of all Indo-European languages, and highly divergent from the others due to the early separation of the [[Anatolian languages]] from the remainder. It possesses some highly archaic features found only fragmentarily, if at all, in other languages. At the same time, however, it appears to have undergone many early phonological and grammatical changes which, combined with the ambiguities of its writing system, hinder its usefulness somewhat.

Other primary sources:
* [[Latin]], attested in a huge amount of poetic and prose material in the [[Classical Latin|Classical]] period ({{Circa|200&nbsp;BC{{snd}}AD&nbsp;100|lk=no}}) and limited [[Old Latin]] material from as early as {{Circa|600&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}.
* [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (the most archaic well-documented [[Germanic language]], {{Circa|AD&nbsp;350|lk=no}}), along with the combined witness of the other old Germanic languages: most importantly, [[Old English]] ({{Circa|800–1000|lk=no}}), [[Old High German]] ({{Circa|750–1000|lk=no}}) and [[Old Norse]] ({{Circa|1100–1300|lk=no}}, with limited earlier sources dating to {{Circa|AD&nbsp;200|lk=no}}).
* [[Old Avestan]] ({{Circa|1700–1200&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}) and [[Younger Avestan]] ({{Circa|900&nbsp;BC|lk=no}})). Documentation is sparse, but nonetheless quite important due to its highly archaic nature.
* Modern [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], with limited records in [[Old Lithuanian]] ({{Circa|1500–1700|lk=no}}).
* [[Old Church Slavonic]] ({{Circa|900–1000|lk=no}}).

Other secondary sources, due to poor attestation:
* [[Luwian]], [[Lycian language|Lycian]], [[Lydian language|Lydian]] and other [[Anatolian languages]] ({{Circa|1400–400&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}).
* [[Oscan]], [[Umbrian]] and other [[Italic languages|Old Italic]] languages ({{Circa|600–200&nbsp;BC|lk=no}})).
* [[Old Persian]] ({{Circa|500&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}).
* [[Old Prussian]] ({{Circa|1350–1600|lk=no}}); even more archaic than Lithuanian.

Other secondary sources, due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation:{{sfn|Beekes|2011|loc=p. 30, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA19 Toch: 19], Arm: 20, Alb: 25 & [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA124 124], [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC&pg=PA27 OIr:27]}}
* [[Old Irish]] ({{Circa|AD&nbsp;700–850|lk=no}}).
* [[Tocharian language|Tocharian]] ({{Circa|AD&nbsp;500–800|lk=no}}), underwent large phonetic shifts and mergers in the proto-language, and has an almost entirely reworked declension system.
* [[Classical Armenian]] ({{Circa|AD&nbsp;400–1000|lk=no}}).<!--<ref name="Strazny2013">{{cite book |author=Philipp Strazny |title=Encyclopedia of Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JOMobauYAC&pg=PA86 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45522-4 |page=86}}</ref>-->
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ({{Circa|1284|lk=no}}{{snd}}present).

=== Sound changes ===
{{Main|Indo-European sound laws}}
As speakers of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) dispersed, the language's sound system diverged as well, changing according to various [[sound law]]s evidenced in the [[daughter language]]s.

PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15 [[stop consonant]]s, including an unusual three-way [[phonation]] ([[voice (phonetics)|voicing]]) distinction between [[voiceless]], [[voiced]] and "[[voiced aspirated]]" (i.e. [[breathy voiced]]) stops, and a three-way distinction among [[velar consonant]]s (''k''-type sounds) between "palatal" ''ḱ ǵ ǵh'', "plain velar" ''k g gh'' and [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelar]] ''kʷ gʷ gʷh''. (The correctness of the terms ''palatal'' and ''plain velar'' is disputed; see [[Proto-Indo-European phonology]].) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways.

As an example, in [[English language|English]], one of the [[Germanic language]]s, the following are some of the major changes that happened:
{{ordered list
|1= As in other [[centum]] languages, the "plain velar" and "palatal" stops merged, reducing the number of stops from 15 to 12.
|2= As in the other Germanic languages, the [[Germanic sound shift]] changed the realization of all stop consonants, with each consonant shifting to a different one:
: {{PIE|bʰ}} → {{PIE|b}} → {{PIE|p}} → {{PIE|f}}
: {{PIE|dʰ}} → {{PIE|d}} → {{PIE|t}} → {{PIE|θ}}
: {{PIE|gʰ}} → {{PIE|g}} → {{PIE|k}} → {{PIE|x}} (Later initial {{PIE|x}} →{{PIE|h}})
: {{PIE|gʷʰ}} → {{PIE|gʷ}} → {{PIE|kʷ}} → {{PIE|xʷ}} (Later initial {{PIE|xʷ}} →{{PIE|hʷ}})
Each original consonant shifted one position to the right. For example, original {{PIE|dʰ}} became {{PIE|d}}, while original {{PIE|d}} became {{PIE|t}} and original {{PIE|t}} became {{PIE|θ}} (written ''th'' in English). This is the original source of the English sounds written ''f'', ''th'', ''h'' and ''wh''. Examples, comparing English with Latin, where the sounds largely remain unshifted:
:For PIE ''p'': ''piscis'' vs. ''fish''; ''pēs, pēdis'' vs. ''foot''; ''pluvium'' "rain" vs. ''flow''; ''pater'' vs. ''father''
:For PIE ''t'': ''trēs'' vs. ''three''; ''māter'' vs. ''mother''
:For PIE ''d'': ''decem'' vs. ''ten''; ''pēdis'' vs. ''foot''; ''quid'' vs. ''what''
:For PIE ''k'': ''centum'' vs. ''hund(red)''; ''capere'' "to take" vs. ''have''
:For PIE ''kʷ'': ''quid'' vs. ''what''; ''quandō'' vs. ''when''
|3= Various further changes affected consonants in the middle or end of a word:
* The voiced stops resulting from the sound shift were softened to voiced [[fricatives]] (or perhaps the sound shift directly generated fricatives in these positions).
* [[Verner's law]] also turned some of the voiceless fricatives resulting from the sound shift into voiced fricatives or stops. This is why the ''t'' in Latin ''centum'' ends up as ''d'' in ''hund(red)'' rather than the expected ''th''.
* Most remaining ''h'' sounds disappeared, while remaining ''f'' and ''th'' became voiced. For example, Latin ''decem'' ends up as ''ten'' with no ''h'' in the middle (but note ''taíhun'' "ten" in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], an archaic Germanic language). Similarly, the words ''seven'' and ''have'' have a voiced ''v'' (compare Latin ''septem'', ''capere''), while ''father'' and ''mother'' have a voiced ''th'', although not spelled differently (compare Latin ''pater'', ''māter'').
}}

None of the daughter-language families (except possibly [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]], particularly [[Luvian]]) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between [[Centum-satem isogloss|''centum'' and ''satem'']] languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars:
* The "central" ''satem'' languages ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]], [[Balto-Slavic]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) reflect both "plain velar" and labiovelar stops as plain velars, often with secondary [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] before a [[front vowel]] (''e i ē ī''). The "palatal" stops are palatalized and often appear as [[sibilant]]s (usually but not always distinct from the secondarily palatalized stops).
* The "peripheral" ''centum'' languages ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Italic languages|Italic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] and [[Tocharian language|Tocharian]]) reflect both "palatal" and "plain velar" stops as plain velars, while the labiovelars continue unchanged, often with later reduction into plain [[labial consonant|labial]] or [[velar consonant]]s.

The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of [[linguistic typology]]—particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation:
* The [[Indo-Aryan language]]s preserve the three series unchanged but have evolved a fourth series of voiceless aspirated consonants.
* The [[Iranian language]]s probably passed through the same stage, subsequently changing the aspirated stops into fricatives.
* [[Greek language|Greek]] converted the voiced aspirates into voiceless aspirates.
* [[Italic languages|Italic]] probably passed through the same stage, but reflects the voiced aspirates as voiceless fricatives, especially ''f'' (or sometimes plain voiced stops in [[Latin]]).
* [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Balto-Slavic]], [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]], and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] merge the voiced aspirated into plain voiced stops.
* [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] change all three series in a [[chain shift]] (e.g. with ''bh b p'' becoming ''b p f'' (known as ''[[Grimm's law]]'' in Germanic)).

Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are:
* The [[Ruki sound law]] (''s'' becomes {{IPA|/ʃ/}} before ''r, u, k, i'') in the ''[[satem]]'' languages.
* Loss of prevocalic ''p'' in [[Proto-Celtic]].
* Development of prevocalic ''s'' to ''h'' in [[Proto-Greek]], with later loss of ''h'' between vowels.
* [[Verner's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]].
* [[Grassmann's law]] (dissimilation of aspirates) independently in Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian.

The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see [[Indo-European sound laws]].

{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Proto-Indo-European consonants and their [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in selected Indo-European daughter languages
! rowspan=2|PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Irish]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! rowspan=2|English !! colspan=6|Examples
!
|- align=center
! PIE !! Eng. !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Ancient Greek|Gk.]] !! [[Latin|Lat.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] etc.
![[Persian language|Prs]].
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*p}}'''
|'''{{PIE|p}}'''; '''{{PIE|ph}}'''<sup>H</sup>
| colspan="4"|'''{{PIE|p}}'''
|'''{{PIE|Ø}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|ch}}'''<sup>T</sup> {{IPA|[x]}}
|'''{{PIE|f}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|b}}'''- {{IPA|[β]}}
|'''{{PIE|f}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|v/f}}'''-
|''*pṓds ~ *ped-'' || ''foot'' || ''pád-'' || ''poús (podós)'' || ''pēs (pedis)'' || ''pãdas''
|Pi''á''de
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*t}}'''
|'''{{PIE|t}}'''; '''{{PIE|th}}'''<sup>H</sup>
| colspan="4"|'''{{PIE|t}}'''
|'''{{PIE|t}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|th}}'''- {{IPA|[θ]}}
|'''{{PIE|þ}}''' {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />`-'''{{PIE|d}}'''- {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />'''{{PIE|t}}'''<sup>T-</sup>
|'''{{PIE|th}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|d}}'''-;<br />'''{{PIE|t}}'''<sup>T-</sup>
|''*tréyes'' || ''three'' || ''tráyas''|| ''treĩs'' || ''trēs'' || ''trỹs''
|thri (old Persian)
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*ḱ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|ś}}''' {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
|'''{{PIE|s}}'''
|'''{{PIE|š}}''' {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|k}}'''
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|c}}''' {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="4"|'''{{PIE|c}}''' {{IPA|[k]}};<br />-'''{{PIE|ch}}'''- {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|h}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|g}}'''- {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|h}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''-;<br />`-'''{{PIE|y}}'''-
|''*ḱm̥tóm'' || ''hund(red)'' || ''śatám'' || ''he-katón'' || ''centum'' || ''šimtas''
|sad
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*k}}'''
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|k}}'''; '''{{PIE|c}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[tʃ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|kh}}'''<sup>H</sup>
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|k}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|č}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[tʃ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|c}}'''<sup>E'</sup> {{IPA|[ts]}}
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|k}}'''
|''*kreuh₂''<br /> "raw meat" || OE ''hrēaw''<br /> ''raw'' || ''kravíṣ-'' || ''kréas'' || ''cruor'' || ''kraûjas''
|xore''š''
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|*kʷ}}'''
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|p}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|t}}'''<sup>E</sup>;<br />'''{{PIE|k}}'''<sup>(u)</sup>
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|qu}}''' {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|c}}'''<sup>(O)</sup> {{IPA|[k]}}
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|ƕ}}''' {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />`-'''{{PIE|gw/w}}'''-
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|wh}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|w}}'''-
| ''*kʷid, kʷod'' || ''what'' || ''kím'' || ''tí'' || ''quid, quod'' ||''kas'', ''kad''
|ce, ci
|- align=center
| ''*kʷekʷlom'' || ''wheel'' || ''cakrá-'' || ''kúklos'' || || ''kãklas''
|carx
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*b}}'''
|'''{{PIE|b}}'''; '''{{PIE|bh}}'''<sup>H</sup>
| colspan="4"|'''{{PIE|b}}'''
|'''{{PIE|b}}''' {{IPA|[b]}};<br />-'''{{IPA|[β]}}'''-
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|p}}'''
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*d}}'''
|'''{{PIE|d}}'''; '''{{PIE|dh}}'''<sup>H</sup>
| colspan="4"|'''{{PIE|d}}'''
|'''{{PIE|d}}''' {{IPA|[d]}};<br />-{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|t}}'''
| ''*déḱm̥(t)'' || ''ten'',<br />[[Gothic language|Goth.]] ''taíhun'' || ''dáśa'' || ''déka'' || ''decem'' || ''dẽšimt''
|dah
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*ǵ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|j}}''' {{IPA|[dʒ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|h}}'''<sup>H</sup> {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
|'''{{PIE|z}}'''
|'''{{PIE|ž}}''' {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}'''
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}''' {{IPA|[ɡ]}};<br />-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|k}}'''
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|c / k}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|ch}}'''<sup>E'</sup>
| ''*ǵénu, *ǵnéu-'' || OE ''cnēo''<br /> ''knee'' || ''jā́nu'' || ''gónu'' || ''genu'' ||
|z''ánu''
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*g}}'''
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|j}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[dʒ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|gh}}'''<sup>H</sup>;<br /> '''{{PIE|h}}'''<sup>H,E</sup> {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|ž}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[ʒ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|dz}}'''<sup>E'</sup>
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}'''
|''*yugóm'' || ''yoke'' || ''yugám'' || ''zugón'' || ''iugum'' || ''jùngas''
|yugh
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*gʷ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|b}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|d}}'''<sup>e</sup>;<br />'''{{PIE|g}}'''<sup>(u)</sup>
|'''{{PIE|u}}''' {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />'''{{PIE|gu}}'''<sup>n−</sup> {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|b}}''' {{IPA|[b]}};<br />-{{IPA|[β]}}-
|'''{{PIE|q}}''' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|'''{{PIE|qu}}'''
| ''*gʷīw-'' || ''quick''<br />"alive" || ''jīvá-'' || ''bíos'',<br />''bíotos'' || ''vīvus'' || ''gývas''
|ze-
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*bʰ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|bh}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|b}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|b}}'''
|'''{{PIE|ph}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|p}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
|'''{{PIE|f}}'''-;<br />'''{{PIE|b}}'''
|'''{{PIE|b}}''' {{IPA|[b]}};<br />-{{IPA|[β]}}-;<br />-'''{{PIE|f}}'''
|'''{{PIE|b}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|v/f}}'''-<sup>(rl)</sup>
| ''*bʰéroh₂'' || ''bear'' "carry" || ''bhar-'' || ''phérō'' || ''ferō'' || [[Old Church Slavonic|OCS]] ''berǫ''
|bar-
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*dʰ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|dh}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|d}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|d}}'''
|'''{{PIE|th}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|t}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
|'''{{PIE|f}}'''-;<br />'''{{PIE|d}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|b}}'''<sup>(r),l,u-</sup>
|'''{{PIE|d}}''' {{IPA|[d]}};<br />-{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|'''{{PIE|d}}''' {{IPA|[d]}};<br />-{{IPA|[ð]}}-;<br />-'''{{PIE|þ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|d}}'''
|''*dʰwer-, dʰur-'' || ''door'' || ''dvā́raḥ'' || ''thurā́'' || ''forēs'' || ''dùrys''
|dar
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}'''
|'''{{PIE|h}}''' {{IPA|[ɦ]}};<br /> '''{{PIE|j}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
|'''{{PIE|z}}'''
|'''{{PIE|ž}}''' {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|kh}}''';<br /> '''{{PIE|k}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|h}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|h/g}}'''<sup>R</sup>
| rowspan="4"|'''{{PIE|g}}''' {{IPA|[ɡ]}};<br />-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|g}}'''- {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<br />-'''{{PIE|g}}''' {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|y/w}}'''-<sup>(rl)</sup>
| ''*ǵʰans-'' || ''goose'',<br /> [[Old High German|OHG]] ''gans'' || ''haṁsáḥ'' || ''khḗn'' || ''(h)ānser'' || ''žąsìs''
|gh''áz''
|- align=center
!'''{{PIE|*gʰ}}'''
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|gh}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|h}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[ɦ]}};<br /> '''{{PIE|g}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>;<br /> '''{{PIE|j}}'''<sup>E..Ch</sup>
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|ž}}'''<sup>E</sup> {{IPA|[ʒ]}};<br />'''{{PIE|dz}}'''<sup>E'</sup>
| rowspan="3"|'''{{PIE|g}}'''
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}'''
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|ph}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|th}}'''<sup>E</sup>;<br />'''{{PIE|kh}}'''<sup>(u)</sup>;<br /> '''{{PIE|p}}'''<sup>..Ch</sup>;<br />'''{{PIE|t}}'''<sup>E..Ch</sup>;<br />'''{{PIE|k}}'''<sup>(u)..Ch</sup>
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|f}}'''-;<br />'''{{PIE|g}}''' /<br />-'''{{PIE|u}}'''- {{IPA|[w]}};<br /><sup>n</sup>'''{{PIE|gu}}''' {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}}
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|b}}'''-;<br />-'''{{PIE|w}}'''-;<br /><sup>n</sup>'''{{PIE|gw}}'''
|rowspan=2|'''{{PIE|g}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|b}}'''-;<br />-'''{{PIE|w}}'''-
| ''*sneigʷʰ-'' || ''snow'' || ''sneha-'' || ''nípha'' || ''nivis'' || ''sniẽgas''
|barf
|- align=center
| ''*gʷʰerm-'' || ??''warm'' || ''gharmáḥ'' || ''thermós'' || ''formus'' || [[Latvian language|Latv.]] ''gar̂me''
|garm
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|*s}}'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{PIE|s}}'''
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|h}}'''-;<br />-'''{{PIE|s}}''';<br />'''{{PIE|s}}'''<sup>(T)</sup>;<br />-'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''-;<br />{{IPA|[¯]}}<sup>(R)</sup>
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|s}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|r}}'''-
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|s}}''' {{IPA|[s]}};<br />-{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|s}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|z}}'''-
| rowspan="2"|'''{{PIE|s}}''';<br />`-'''{{PIE|r}}'''-
| ''*septḿ̥'' || ''seven'' || ''saptá'' || ''heptá'' || ''septem'' || ''septynì''
|haft
|- align=center
|'''{{PIE|ṣ}}'''<sup>ruki-</sup> {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
|'''{{PIE|x}}'''<sup>ruki-</sup> {{IPA|[x]}}
|'''{{PIE|š}}'''<sup>ruki-</sup> {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| ''*h₂eusōs''<br />"dawn" || ''east'' || ''uṣā́ḥ'' || ''āṓs'' || ''aurōra'' || ''aušra''
|b''á''xtar
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*m}}'''
| colspan="5"|'''{{PIE|m}}'''
| '''{{PIE|m}}''' {{IPA|[m]}};<br />-{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|m}}'''
| ''*mūs'' || ''mouse'' || ''mū́ṣ-'' || ''mũs'' || ''mūs'' || [[Old Church Slavonic|OCS]] ''myšĭ''
|mu''š''
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*-m}}'''
| -'''{{PIE|m}}'''
| -'''{{PIE|˛}}''' {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="2"| -'''{{PIE|n}}'''
| -'''{{PIE|m}}'''
| -'''{{PIE|n}}'''
| colspan="2"| -'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''
| ''*ḱm̥tóm'' || ''hund(red)'' || ''śatám'' || ''(he)katón'' || ''centum'' || [[Old Prussian|OPrus]] ''simtan''
|sad
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*n}}'''
|'''{{PIE|n}}'''
|'''{{PIE|n}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|˛}}''' {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="6"|'''{{PIE|n}}'''
| ''*nokʷt-'' || ''night'' || ''nákt-'' || ''núkt-'' || ''noct-'' || ''naktis''
|n''áštá''
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*l}}'''
|'''{{PIE|r}}''' (dial. '''{{PIE|l}}''')
| colspan="7"|'''{{PIE|l}}'''
| ''*leuk-'' || ''light'' || ''ruc-'' || ''leukós'' || ''lūx'' || ''laũkas''
|ruz
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*r}}'''
| colspan="8"|'''{{PIE|r}}'''
| ''*h₁reudʰ-'' || ''red'' || ''rudhirá-'' || ''eruthrós'' || ''ruber'' || ''raũdas''
|sorx
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*i̯}}'''
| '''{{PIE|y}}''' {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|j}}''' {{IPA|[j]}}
|'''{{PIE|z}}''' {{IPA|[dz > zd, z]}} /<br />'''{{PIE|h}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''-
|'''{{PIE|i}}''' {{IPA|[j]}};<br />-'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''-
|'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''
|'''{{PIE|j}}'''
|'''{{PIE|y}}'''
|''*yugóm'' || ''yoke'' || ''yugám'' || ''zugón'' || ''iugum'' || ''jùngas''
|yugh
|- align=center
! '''{{PIE|*u̯}}'''
|'''{{PIE|v}}''' {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|'''{{PIE|v}}'''
|'''{{PIE|v}}''' {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|'''{{PIE|w > h / Ø}}'''
|'''{{PIE|u}}''' {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|'''{{PIE|f}}''';<br />-'''{{PIE|Ø}}'''-
| colspan="2"|'''{{PIE|w}}'''
|''*h₂weh₁n̥to-'' || ''wind'' || ''vā́taḥ'' || ''áenta'' || ''ventus'' || ''vėtra''
|b''ád''
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! English
|}

:Notes:
* '''C'''- At the beginning of a word.
* -'''C'''- Between vowels.
* -'''C''' At the end of a word.
* `-'''C'''- Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).
* -'''C'''-<sup>(rl)</sup> Between vowels, or between a vowel and '''{{PIE|r, l}}''' (on either side).
* '''C'''<sup>T</sup> Before a (PIE) stop ('''{{PIE|p, t, k}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>T−</sup> After a (PIE) obstruent ('''{{PIE|p, t, k}}''', etc.; '''{{PIE|s}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>(T)</sup> Before or after an obstruent ('''{{PIE|p, t, k}}''', etc.; '''{{PIE|s}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>H</sup> Before an original laryngeal.
* '''C'''<sup>E</sup> Before a (PIE) front vowel ('''{{PIE|i, e}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>E'</sup> Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
* '''C'''<sup>e</sup> Before '''{{PIE|e}}'''.
* '''C'''<sup>(u)</sup> Before or after a (PIE) '''{{PIE|u}}''' ([[boukólos rule]]).
* '''C'''<sup>(O)</sup> Before or after a (PIE) '''{{PIE|o, u}}''' ([[boukólos rule]]).
* '''C'''<sup>n−</sup> After '''{{PIE|n}}'''.
* '''C'''<sup>R</sup> Before a [[sonorant]] ('''{{PIE|r, l, m, n}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>(R)</sup> Before or after a [[sonorant]] ('''{{PIE|r, l, m, n}}''').
* '''C'''<sup>(r),l,u−</sup> Before '''{{PIE|r, l}}''' or after '''{{PIE|r, u}}'''.
* '''C'''<sup>ruki−</sup> After '''{{PIE|r, u, k, i}}''' ([[Ruki sound law]]).
* '''C'''<sup>..Ch</sup> Before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ([[Grassmann's law]], also known as [[dissimilation of aspirates]]).
* '''C'''<sup>E..Ch</sup> Before a (PIE) front vowel ('''{{PIE|i, e}}''') as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ([[Grassmann's law]], also known as [[dissimilation of aspirates]]).
* '''C'''<sup>(u)..Ch</sup> Before or after a (PIE) '''{{PIE|u}}''' as well as before an aspirated consonant in the next syllable ([[Grassmann's law]], also known as [[dissimilation of aspirates]]).

=== Comparison of conjugations ===

The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the [[vowel stems|thematic]] [[present indicative]] of the verbal root *{{PIE|bʰer-}} of the English verb ''[[wikt:bear|to bear]]'' and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+
|-
!
! [[Proto-Indo-European]]<br /> (*{{PIE|[[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European/bʰer-|bʰer-]]}} 'to carry, to bear')
|-
! I (1st sg.)
| *{{PIE|bʰéroh₂}}
|-
! You (2nd sg.)
| *{{PIE|bʰéresi}}
|-
! He/She/It (3rd sg.)
| *{{PIE|bʰéreti}}
|-
! We two (1st [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]])
| *{{PIE|bʰérowos}}
|-
! You two (2nd dual)
| *{{PIE|bʰéreth₁es}}
|-
! They two (3rd dual)
| *{{PIE|bʰéretes}}
|-
! We (1st pl.)
| *{{PIE|bʰéromos}}
|-
! You (2nd pl.)
| *{{PIE|bʰérete}}
|-
! They (3rd pl.)
| *{{PIE|bʰéronti}}
|}<!-- Indo-Iranian -->
<!-- Balto-Slavic -->{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Major subgroup
! rowspan="2" |[[Hellenic languages|Hellenic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Italic languages|Italic]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Armenian languages|Armenian]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Albanian languages|Albanian]]
|-
![[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
![[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
![[Baltic languages|Baltic]]
![[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|-
! Ancient representative
![[Ancient Greek]]
![[Vedic Sanskrit]]
![[Avestan]]
![[Latin]]
![[Old Irish]]
![[Classical Armenian]]
![[Gothic language|Gothic]]
![[Old Prussian]]
![[Old Church Slavic|Old Church Sl.]]
![[Old Albanian]]
|-
! I (1st sg.)
|[[wikt:φέρω|phérō]]
| bʰárāmi
| barāmi
|[[wikt:fero#Latin|ferō]]
| biru; berim
| berem
| baíra /bɛra/
| *bera
| berǫ
| *berja
|-
! You (2nd sg.)
| phéreis
| bʰárasi
| barahi
| fers
| biri; berir
| beres
| baíris
| *bera
| bereši
| *berje
|-
! He/She/It (3rd sg.)
| phérei
| bʰárati
| baraiti
| fert
| berid
| berē
| baíriþ
| *bera
| beretъ
| *berjet
|-
! We two (1st dual)
| —
| bʰárāvas
| barāvahi
| —
| —
| —
| baíros
|—
| berevě
|—
|-
! You two (2nd dual)
| phéreton
| bʰárathas
| —
| —
| —
| —
| baírats
|—
| bereta
|—
|-
! They two (3rd dual)
| phéreton
| bʰáratas
| baratō
| —
| —
| —
| —
|—
| berete
|—
|-
! We (1st pl.)
| phéromen
| bʰárāmas
| barāmahi
| ferimus
| bermai
| beremkʿ
| baíram
| *beramai
| beremъ
| *berjame
|-
! You (2nd pl.)
| phérete
| bʰáratha
| baraθa
| fertis
| beirthe
| berēkʿ
| baíriþ
| *beratei
| berete
| *berjeju
|-
! They (3rd pl.)
| phérousi
| bʰáranti
| barəṇti
| ferunt
| berait
| beren
| baírand
| *bera
| berǫtъ
| *berjanti
|-
! Modern representative
![[Modern Greek]]
![[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
![[Persian language|Persian]]
![[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
![[Irish language|Irish]]
![[Armenian language|Armenian (Eastern; Western)]]
![[German language|German]]
![[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
![[Slovene language|Slovene]]
![[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|-
! I (1st sg.)
| férno
| (ma͠i) bʰarūm̥
| (man) {mi}baram
| {con}firo
|[[wikt:beir#Irish|beirim]]
| berum em; g'perem
| (ich) {ge}bäre
| beriu
| bérem
| (unë) bie
|-
! You (2nd sg.)
| férnis
| (tū) bʰarē
| (tu) {mi}bari
| {con}feres
| beirir
| berum es; g'peres
| (du) {ge}bierst
| beri
| béreš
| (ti) bie
|-
! He/She/It (3rd sg.)
| férni
| (ye/vo) bʰarē
| (ān) {mi}barad
| {con}fere
| beiridh
| berum ē; g'perē
| (er/sie/es) {ge}biert
| beria
| bére
| (ai/ajo) bie
|-
! We two (1st dual)
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
| beriava
| béreva
|—
|-
! You two (2nd dual)
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|beriata
|béreta
|—
|-
! They two (3rd dual)
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
| beria
| béreta
|—
|-
! We (1st pl.)
| férnume
| (ham) bʰarēm̥
| (mā) {mi}barim
| {con}ferimos
| beirimid; beiream
| berum enkʿ; g'perenkʿ
| (wir) {ge}bären
| beriame
| béremo
| (ne) biem
|-
! You (2nd pl.)
| férnete
| (tum) bʰaro
| (šomā) {mi}barid
| {con}feris
| beirthidh
| berum ekʿ; g'perekʿ
| (ihr) {ge}bärt
| beriate
| bérete
| (ju) bini
|-
! They (3rd pl.)
| férnun
| (ye/vo) bʰarēm̥
| (ānān) {mi}barand
| {con}ferem
| beirid
| berum en; g'peren
| (sie) {ge}bären
| beria
| bérejo; berọ́
| (ata/ato) bien
|}

While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from [[synthetic language|synthetic]] verb systems to largely [[periphrastic]] systems. In addition, the [[pronoun]]s of periphrastic forms are in parentheses when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well.
* In [[Modern Irish]] ''beir'' usually only carries the meaning ''to bear'' in the sense of bearing a child; its common meanings are ''to catch, grab''. Apart from the first person, the forms given in the table above are dialectical or obsolete. The second and third person forms are typically instead conjugated [[periphrasis|periphrastically]] by adding a pronoun after the verb: ''beireann tú, beireann sé/sí, beireann sibh, beireann siad''.
* The [[Hindustani grammar|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]) verb ''bʰarnā'', the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the [[present indicative]], now have the meaning of [[Subjunctive mood|future subjunctive]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=van Olphen |first=Herman |date=1975 |title=Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=284–301 |doi=10.1163/000000075791615397 |jstor=24651488 |s2cid=161530848 |issn=0019-7246 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24651488 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The loss of the [[present indicative]] in Hindustani is roughly compensated by the periphrastic [[Habitual aspect|habitual indicative]] construction, using the [[Habitual aspect|habitual participle]] (etymologically from the Sanskrit present participle ''bʰarant-'') and an auxiliary: ''ma͠i bʰartā hū̃, tū bʰartā hai, vah bʰartā hai, ham bʰarte ha͠i, tum bʰarte ho, ve bʰarte ha͠i'' (masculine forms).
* German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of {{Circa|400 AD}} would have looked like. The descendant of Proto-Germanic ''*beraną'' (English ''bear'') survives in German only in the compound ''gebären'', meaning "bear (a child)".
* The Latin verb ''ferre'' is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In most Romance languages such as Portuguese, other verbs now mean "to carry" (e.g. Pt. ''portar'' < Lat. ''portare'') and ''ferre'' was borrowed and nativized only in compounds such as {{lang|pt|sofrer}} "to suffer" (from Latin ''sub-'' and ''ferre'') and {{lang|pt|conferir}} "to confer" (from Latin "con-" and "ferre").
* In Modern [[Greek language|Greek]], ''phero'' φέρω (modern transliteration ''fero'') "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts and is most common in such compounds as αναφέρω, διαφέρω, εισφέρω, εκφέρω, καταφέρω, προφέρω, προαναφέρω, προσφέρω etc. The form that is (very) common today is ''pherno'' φέρνω (modern transliteration ''ferno'') meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of ''pherno'' (used for the subjunctive voice and also for the future tense) is also ''phero''.
* The dual forms are archaic in standard Lithuanian, and are only presently used in some dialects (e.g. [[Samogitian dialect|Samogitian]]).
* Among modern Slavic languages, only Slovene continues to have a dual number in the standard variety.