Editing Hyksos (section)

== History ==
===Early contacts between Egypt and the Levant===
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| image1 = Procession of the Aamu, Tomb of Khnumhotep II (composite).jpg
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| footer = A group of West Asiatic foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites, labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ('''<big><big>𓋾𓈎𓈉</big></big>''' ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"). Tomb of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]], at [[Beni Hasan]] (c. 1890 BC).{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
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Historical records suggest that Semitic people and Egyptians had contacts at all periods of Egypt's history.{{sfn|Bright|2000|p=97}} The [[MacGregor plaque]], an early Egyptian tablet dating to 3000 BC records "The first occasion of striking the East", with the picture of Pharaoh [[Den (pharaoh)|Den]] smiting a Western Asiatic enemy.{{sfn|Russmann|James|2001|pp=67–68}}

During the reign of [[Senusret II]], c. 1890 BC, [[:File:Procession_of_the_Aamu,_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_(composite).jpg|parties of Western Asiatic foreigners visiting the Pharaoh with gifts]] are recorded, as in the tomb paintings of [[12th dynasty|12th-dynasty]] official [[Khnumhotep II]]. These foreigners, possibly [[Canaan]]ites or [[nomads]], are labelled as ''[[Aamu]]'' ({{lang|egy|ꜥꜣmw|italics=yes}}), including the leading man with a [[Nubian ibex]] labelled as ''Abisha the Hyksos'' ('''𓋾𓈎𓈉''' ḥqꜣ-ḫꜣsw, ''Heqa-kasut'' for "Hyksos"), the first known instance of the name "Hyksos".{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=131}}{{sfn|Bard|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Kamrin|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Curry|2018}}
 
Soon after, the [[Sebek-khu Stele]], dated to the reign of [[Senusret III]] (reign: 1878–1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched [[Retenu]]", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be [[Shechem]] and "Retenu" or "[[Retjenu]]" are associated with ancient [[Syria]].{{sfn|Pritchard|2016|p=230}}{{sfn|Steiner|Killebrew|2014|p=73}}

===Background and arrival in Egypt===
The only ancient account of the whole Hyksos period is by the Hellenistic Egyptian historian [[Manetho]], who exists only as quoted by others.{{sfn|Raspe|1998|p=126–128}} As recorded by Josephus, Manetho describes the beginning of Hyksos rule thus:
{{blockquote|A people of ignoble origin from the east, whose coming was unforeseen, had the audacity to invade the country, which they mastered by main force without difficulty or even battle. Having overpowered the chiefs, they then savagely burnt the cities, razed the temples of the gods to the ground, and treated the whole native population with the utmost cruelty, massacring some, and carrying off the wives and children of others into slavery (''[[Contra Apion]]'' I.75-77).{{sfn|Josephus|1926|p=196}}}}

[[File:Hyksos dagger handle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Electrum]] dagger handle of a soldier of Hyksos pharaoh [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]], illustrating the soldier hunting with a short bow and sword. Inscriptions: "The perfect god, the lord of the two lands, Nebkhepeshre [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi]]" and "Follower of his lord Nehemen", found at a burial at [[Saqqara]].{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|pp=116–117}} Now at the [[Luxor Museum]].{{sfn |Wilkinson |2013a |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wVbGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT96 96]}}{{sfn |Daressy |1906 |pp=115–120}}]]
Manetho's invasion narrative is "nowadays rejected by most scholars."{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=5}} It is likely that more recent foreign invasions of Egypt influenced him.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=1}} Instead, it appears that the establishment of Hyksos rule was mostly peaceful and did not involve an invasion of an entirely foreign population.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}} Archaeology shows a continuous Asiatic presence at Avaris for over 150&nbsp;years before the beginning of Hyksos rule,{{sfn|Bietak|2006|p=285}} with gradual Canaanite settlement beginning there {{circa|1800 BC}} during the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=1}} Strontium isotope analysis of the inhabitants of Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Avaris also dismissed the invasion model in favor of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study did not find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion of 77% of females being non-locals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Nowell|first4=Geoff M.|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2020-07-15|title=Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=7|pages=e0235414|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0235414|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7363063|pmid=32667937|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1535414S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stantis|first1=Chris|last2=Kharobi|first2=Arwa|last3=Maaranen|first3=Nina|last4=Macpherson|first4=Colin|last5=Bietak|first5=Manfred|last6=Prell|first6=Silvia|last7=Schutkowski|first7=Holger|date=2021-06-01|title=Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta|journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences|language=en|volume=13|issue=6|pages=105|doi=10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x|s2cid=235271929 |issn=1866-9565|doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ArAnS..13..105S }}</ref>

[[Manfred Bietak]] argues that Hyksos "should be understood within a repetitive pattern of the attraction of Egypt for western Asiatic population groups that came in search of a living in the country, especially the Delta, since prehistoric times."{{sfn|Bietak|2006|p=285}} He notes that Egypt had long depended on the Levant for expertise in areas of shipbuilding and seafaring, with possible depictions of Asiatic shipbuilders being found from reliefs from the [[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixth Dynasty]] ruler [[Sahure]]. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt is known to have had many Asiatic immigrants serving as soldiers, household or temple serfs, and various other jobs. [[Avaris]] in the Nile Delta attracted many Asiatic immigrants in its role as a hub of international trade and seafaring.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}

The final powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirteenth Dynasty]] was [[Sobekhotep IV]], who died around 1725 BC, after which Egypt appears to have splintered into various kingdoms, including one based at Avaris ruled by the [[Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourteenth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|pp=177–178}} Based on their names, this dynasty was already primarily of West Asian origin.{{sfn|Bietak|2019|p=47}} After an event in which their palace was burned,{{sfn|Bietak|2019|p=47}} the Fourteenth Dynasty would be replaced by the Hyksos [[Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifteenth Dynasty]], which would establish "loose control over northern Egypt by intimidation or force,"{{sfn|Bietak|1999|p=377}} thus greatly expanding the area under Avaris's control.{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=180}}

[[Kim Ryholt]] argues that the Fifteenth Dynasty invaded and displaced the Fourteenth. However, Alexander Ilin-Tomich argues that this is "not sufficiently substantiated."{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=6}} Bietak interprets a stela of [[Neferhotep III]] to indicate that Egypt was overrun by roving mercenaries around the time of the Hyksos ascension to power.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=5}}

===Kingdom===
{{main|Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}
{{Location map+|Northern Egypt|caption=Key Sites of the Second Intermediate Period, in Northern Egypt. West Semitic in red; Egyptian in blue.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}|relief=yes|width=300|places=
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label='''[[Avaris]]'''|position=top|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.787417 |lon_deg=31.821361|link=Avaris|label_size=80}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Tjaru]]|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.8572 |lon_deg=32.3506|link=Tjaru|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=Tell el‑Yahudiyeh|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.4925 |lon_deg=31.554444|link=Tell el-Yahudiyeh|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.129333 |lon_deg=31.307528|link=Heliopolis, Egypt|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Tell Basta]]|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.57165881|lon_deg=31.51312613|link=[[Bubastis]]|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=Tell Farasha|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.68|lon_deg=31.72|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Inshas]]|position=left|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.35|lon_deg=31.45|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=Tell el‑Maskhuta|position=right|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.551944 |lon_deg=32.098611|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=Tell er‑Retabeh|position=top|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.54828705 |lon_deg=31.96386495|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=Tell es‑Sahaba|position=bottom|mark=Red pog.svg|lat_deg=30.53 |lon_deg=32.06|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Memphis (Egypt)|Memphis]]|position=left|mark=Blue pog.svg|lat_deg=29.85057823 |lon_deg=31.25253784|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Lisht]]|position=left|mark=Blue pog.svg|lat_deg=29.5700184|lon_deg=31.2290955|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Dahshur]]|position=right|mark=Blue pog.svg|lat_deg=29.78039307|lon_deg=31.21742016|label_size=50}}
{{Location map~ |Northern Egypt|label=[[Beni Hasan]]|position=right|mark=Blue pog.svg|lat_deg=27.933333|lon_deg=30.883333|label_size=50}}
}} 
The length of time the Hyksos ruled is unclear. The fragmentary [[Turin King List]] says that there were six Hyksos kings who collectively ruled 108 years,{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=186}} however in 2018 Kim Ryholt proposed a new reading of as many as 149 years, while Thomas Schneider proposed a length between 160 and 180 years.{{sfn|Aston|2018|pp=31–32}} The rule of the Hyksos overlaps with that of the native Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixteenth]] and [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|Seventeenth]] Dynasties, better known as the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]].

The area under direct control of the Hyksos was probably limited to the eastern [[Nile delta]].{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}} Their capital city was [[Avaris]] at a fork on the now-dry Pelusiac branch of the Nile. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] may have also been an important administrative center,{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=183}} although the nature of any Hyksos presence there remains unclear.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}}

According to Anna-Latifa Mourad, other sites with likely Levantine populations or strong Levantine connections in the Delta include Tell Farasha and Tell el-Maghud, located between Tell Basta and Avaris,{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=43–44}} El-Khata'na, southwest of Avaris, and [[Inshas]].{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=48}} The increased prosperity of Avaris may have attracted more Levantines to settle in the eastern Delta.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}} Kom el-Hisn, at the edge of the Western Delta, shows Near Eastern goods but individuals mostly buried in an Egyptian style, which Mourad takes to mean that they were most likely Egyptians heavily influenced by Levantine traditions or, more likely, Egyptianized Levantines.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=49–50}} The site of [[Tell Basta]] (Bubastis), at the confluence of the Pelusiac and Tanitic branches of the Nile, contains monuments to the Hyksos kings Khyan and Apepi, but little other evidence of Levantine habitation.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=21}} Tell el-Habwa ([[Tjaru]]), located on a branch of the Nile near the Sinai, also shows evidence of non-Egyptian presence. However, most of the population appears to have been Egyptian or Egyptianized Levantines.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=44–48}} Tell El-Habwa would have provided Avaris with grain and trade goods.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=129–130}}

[[File:Headband with Heads of Gazelles and a Stag Between Stars or Flowers ca. 1648–1540 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Near-eastern inspired diadem with heads of gazelles and a stag between stars or flowers, belonging to an elite lady discovered at a tomb at [[Tell el-Dab'a]] (Avaris) dating from the late Hyksos period (1648–1540 BC).{{sfn|O'Connor|2009|pp=115–116}}{{sfn|Kopetzky|Bietak|2016|p=362}} Now at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyksos headband |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544073 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>]]
In the [[Wadi Tumilat]], [[Tell el-Maskhuta]] shows a great deal of Levantine pottery and an occupation history closely correlated to the Fifteenth Dynasty,{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=51–55}} nearby Tell el-Rataba and Tell el-Sahaba show possible Hyksos-style burials and occupation,{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=56–57}} Tell el-Yahudiyah, located between Memphis and the Wadi Tumilat, contains a large earthwork that the Hyksos may have built, as well as evidence of Levantine burials from as early as the Thirteenth Dynasty,{{sfn|Mourad|2015|pp=57–61}} as well as characteristic Hyksos-era pottery known as [[Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware]] The Hyksos settlements in the Wadi Tumilat would have provided access to Sinai, the southern Levant, and possibly the [[Red Sea]].{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=130}}

The sites Tell el-Kabir, Tell Yehud, Tell Fawziya, and Tell Geziret el-Faras are noted by scholars other than Mourad to contain "elements of 'Hyksos culture'", but there is no published archaeological material for them.{{sfn|Mourad|2015|p=19}}

The Hyksos claimed to be rulers of both [[Lower Egypt|Lower]] and [[Upper Egypt]]; however, their southern border was marked at [[Hermopolis]] and [[Cusae]].{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=182}} Some objects might suggest a Hyksos presence in Upper Egypt, but they may have been Theban war booty or attest simply to short-term raids, trade, or diplomatic contact.{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=3}} The nature of Hyksos control over the region of [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]] remains unclear.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}} Most likely Hyksos rule covered the area from [[Middle Egypt]] to southern [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=2}} Older scholarship believed, due to the distribution of Hyksos goods with the names of Hyksos rulers in places such as [[Baghdad]] and [[Knossos]], that Hyksos had ruled a vast empire, but it seems more likely to have been the result of diplomatic gift exchange and far-flung trade networks.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|p=105}}{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=7}}

===Wars with the Seventeenth Dynasty===
The conflict between Thebes and the Hyksos is known exclusively from pro-Theban sources, and it is not easy to construct a chronology.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|pp=108–109}} These sources propagandistically portray the conflict as a war of national liberation. This perspective was formerly taken by scholars as well but is no longer thought to be accurate.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|p=109}}{{sfn|Popko|2013|pp=1–2}}

Hostilities between the Hyksos and the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty appear to have begun during the reign of Theban king [[Seqenenra Taa]]. Seqenenra Taa's mummy shows that he was killed by several blows of an axe to the head, apparently in battle with the Hyksos.{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} It is unclear why hostilities may have started. The much later fragmentary [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] tale ''[[The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre]]'' blames the Hyksos ruler [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi/Apophis]] for initiating the conflict by demanding that [[Seqenenre Tao]] remove a pool of [[hippopotamus]]es near Thebes.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=160}} However, this is a satire on the Egyptian story-telling genre of the "king's novel" rather than a historical text.{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} A contemporary inscription at Wadi el Hôl may also refer to hostilities between Seqenenra and Apepi.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=5}}

[[File:Sequenre tao.JPG|thumb|Mummified head of [[Seqenenre Tao]], bearing axe wounds. The common theory is that he died in a battle against the Hyksos.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=160}}]]
Three years later, c. 1542 BC,{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=200}} Seqenenre Tao's successor [[Kamose]] initiated a campaign against several cities loyal to the Hyksos, the account of which is preserved on three monumental stelae set up at [[Karnak]].{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=161}}{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=5}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2013|p=547}} The first of the three, [[Carnarvon Tablet]] includes a complaint by Kamose about the divided and occupied state of Egypt:
{{blockquote|To what effect do I perceive it, my might, while a ruler is in Avaris and another in Kush, I sitting joined with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his (own) portion of this Egypt, sharing the land with me. There is no passing him as far as Memphis, the water of Egypt. He has possession of Hermopolis, and no man can rest, being deprived by the levies of the Setiu. I shall engage in battle with him and I shall slit his body, for my intention is to save Egypt, striking the Asiatics.{{sfn|Ritner|Simpson|Tobin|Wente|2003|p=346}}}}

Following a common literary device, Kamose's advisors are portrayed as trying to dissuade the king, who attacks anyway.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=161}} He recounts his destruction of the city of [[Nefrusy]] as well as several other cities loyal to the Hyksos. On a second stele, Kamose claims to have captured Avaris, but returned to Thebes after capturing a messenger between Apepi and the [[Kingdom of Kerma|king of Kush]].{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} Kamose appears to have died soon afterward (c. 1540 BC).{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=200}}

[[Ahmose I]] continued the war against the Hyksos, most likely conquering Memphis, [[Tjaru]], and [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]] early in his reign, the latter two of which are mentioned in an entry of the [[Rhind mathematical papyrus]].{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} Knowledge of Ahmose I's campaigns against the Hyksos mostly comes from the tomb of [[Ahmose, son of Ebana]], who gives a first-person account claiming that Ahmose I sacked Avaris:{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=177}} "Then there was fighting in Egypt to the south of this town [Avaris], and I carried off a man as a living captive. I went down into the water—for he was captured on the city side—and crossed the water carrying him. [...] Then Avaris was despoiled, and I brought spoil from there.{{sfn|Lichthelm|2019|p=321}}

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| image1 = Ceremonial axe of Ahmose I (front and back).jpg
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| footer = Pharaoh [[Ahmose I]] (ruled c. 1549–1524 BC) slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen [[Ahhotep II]]. Inscription "Ahmose, beloved of (the War God) [[Montu]]". [[Luxor Museum]]{{sfn|Daressy|1906|p=117}}<ref>{{harvnb|Montet|1968|p=80|ps=. "Others were later added to them, things which came from the pharaoh Ahmose, like the axe decorated with a griffin and a likeness of the king slaying a Hyksos, with other axes and daggers."}}</ref>{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=308|ps=. A color photograph.}}{{sfn|Baker|Baker|2001|p=86}}
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Thomas Schneider places the conquest in year 18 of Ahmose's reign.{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=195}} However, excavations of [[Tell El-Dab'a]] (Avaris) show no widespread destruction of the city, which instead seems to have been abandoned by the Hyksos.{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} Manetho, as recorded in Josephus, states that the Hyksos were allowed to leave after concluding a treaty:{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|pp=201–202}}
{{blockquote|Thoumosis ... invested the walls [of Avaris] with an army of 480,000 men, and endeavoured to reduce [the Hyksos] to submission by siege. Despairing of achieving his object, he concluded a treaty, under which [the Hyksos] were all to evacuate Egypt and go whither they would unmolested. Upon these terms no fewer than two hundred and forty thousand, entire households with their possessions, left Egypt and traversed the desert to Syria. (''Contra Apion'' I.88-89){{sfn|Josephus|1926|pp=197–199}}}}
Although Manetho indicates that the Hyksos population was expelled to the Levant, there is no archaeological evidence for this, and Manfred Bietak argues based on archaeological finds throughout Egypt that it is likely that numerous Asiatics were resettled in other locations in Egypt as artisans and craftsmen.{{sfn|Bietak|2010|pp=170–171}} Many may have remained at Avaris, as pottery and scarabs with typical "Hyksos" forms continued to be produced uninterrupted throughout the Eastern Delta.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=5}} Canaanite cults also continued to be worshiped at Avaris.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=6}}

Following the capture of Avaris, Ahmose, son of Ebana, records that Ahmose I captured [[Sharuhen]] (possibly [[Tell el-Ajjul]]), which some scholars argue was a city in Canaan under Hyksos control.{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=168}}