Editing Huns (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of the Huns}}

=== Before Attila ===
[[File:Hunnenwanderung.png|thumb|A suggested path of the Huns' movement westwards (labels in German)|left]]
The history of the Huns in the fourth century is not very clear, and the Huns left no sources themselves.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=77}} The Romans became aware of the Huns{{efn|There is a misconception, e.g. as expressed by ''[[World History Encyclopedia]]'',{{sfn|Mark|2018}} that [[Tacitus]] ({{circa|56}} – {{circa|120 CE}}) had first mentioned the Huns in 91 CE. However, [[T. D. Barnes]] (1977) already pointed out that Tacitus had not at all mentioned the Huns; and that [[Orosius]] ({{circa|375/385}} – {{circa|420 CE}}) did not ascribe knowledge about the Huns to Tacitus, but simply identified the contemporary Alans, Goths, and Huns with the [[Scythians]] whom Tacitus and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] had already mentioned.{{sfn|Barnes|1977|p=225}}}} when the latter's invasion of the [[Pontic steppes]] forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376.{{sfn|Heather|2005|pp=153–154}} The Huns conquered the [[Alans]], most of the [[Greuthungi]] or Eastern Goths, and then most of the [[Thervingi]] or Western Goths, with many fleeing into the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Heather|2005|pp=151–152}} In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the [[Eastern Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Thompson|1996|pp=30–31}} Huns attacked in Thrace, overran [[Armenia]], and pillaged [[Cappadocia]]. They entered parts of [[Syria]], threatened [[Antioch]], and passed through the province of [[Euphratesia]].{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=184}} At the same time, the Huns [[Hun Invasion of Persia|invaded the Sasanian Empire]]. This invasion was initially successful, coming close to the capital of the empire at [[Ctesiphon]]; however, they were defeated badly during the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] counterattack.{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=184}}

[[File:Képes_krónika_-_9.oldal_-_Attila_csatája_Zeiselmauernél_a_rómaiakkal.jpg|thumb|The depicted battle is the legendary Battle of Zeiselmauer when the Huns conquered [[Pannonia]] from the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] ([[Chronicon Pictum]], 1358)]]
During their brief diversion from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns may have threatened tribes further west.{{sfn|Thompson|1996|pp=32–33}} [[Uldin]], the first Hun identified by name in contemporary sources,{{sfn|Thompson|1996|p=33}} headed a group of Huns and Alans fighting against Radagaisus in defense of Italy. Uldin was also known for defeating Gothic rebels who troubled the East Romans around the Danube and for beheading the Goth [[Gainas]] around 400–401. The East Romans began to feel the pressure from Uldin's Huns again in 408. Uldin crossed the Danube and pillaged Thrace. The East Romans tried to buy off Uldin, but his sum was too high so they instead bought off Uldin's subordinates. This resulted in many desertions from Uldin's group of Huns. Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again in history.{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=185}}

Hunnish mercenaries are mentioned on several occasions being employed by the East and West Romans, as well as the Goths, during the late 4th and 5th century.{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=181}} In 433 some parts of [[Pannonia]] were ceded to them by [[Flavius Aetius]], the [[magister militum]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=178}}

=== Under Attila<!--'Hunnic Empire' redirects here--> ===

From 434 the brothers [[Attila]] and [[Bleda]] ruled the Huns together. Attila and Bleda were as ambitious as their uncle [[Rugila]]. In 435 they forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the [[Treaty of Margus]],{{sfn|Thompson|1996|p=136}} giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Romans. When the Romans breached the treaty in 440, Attila and Bleda attacked Castra Constantias, a Roman fortress and marketplace on the banks of the [[Danube]].{{sfn|Thompson|1996|pp=87–89}} War broke out between the Huns and Romans, and the Huns overcame a weak [[Roman army]] to raze the cities of Margus, [[Singidunum]] and [[Viminacium]]. Although a truce was concluded in 441, two years later [[Constantinople]] again failed to deliver the tribute and war resumed. In the following campaign, Hun armies approached Constantinople and sacked several cities before defeating the Romans at the [[Gallipoli|Battle of Chersonesus]]. The Eastern Roman Emperor [[Theodosius II]] gave in to Hun demands and in autumn 443 signed the [[Peace of Anatolius]] with the two Hun kings. Bleda died in 445, and Attila became the sole ruler of the Huns.

In 447, Attila invaded the [[Balkans]] and Thrace. The war came to an end in 449 with an agreement in which the East Romans agreed to pay Attila an annual tribute of 2100 pounds of gold. Throughout their raids on the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Empire. However, [[Honoria]], sister of the Western Roman Emperor [[Valentinian III]], sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator. Attila claimed her as his bride and half the [[Western Roman Empire]] as dowry.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|pp=251–252}} Additionally, a dispute arose about the rightful heir to a king of the [[Salian Franks]]. In 451, Attila's forces entered [[Gaul]]. Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked [[Metz]], then their armies continued westward, passing both Paris and [[Troyes]] to lay siege to [[Orléans]]. [[Flavius Aetius]] was given the duty of relieving Orléans by Emperor Valentinian III. A combined army of Roman and [[Visigoths]] then fought the Huns at the [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]].

[[File:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|[[Raffaello Santi|Raphael]]'s ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' depicts [[Pope Leo I]], escorted by [[Saint Peter]] and [[Saint Paul]], meeting with the [[Hun]] emperor outside Rome]]

The following year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the [[Western Roman Empire]]. Leading his army across the Alps and into Northern Italy, he sacked and razed a number of cities. Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome, Emperor [[Valentinian III]] sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as [[Pope Leo I]], who met Attila at [[Mincio]] in the vicinity of [[Mantua]], and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. The new Eastern Roman Emperor [[Marcian]] then halted tribute payments, resulting in Attila planning to attack Constantinople. However, in 453 Attila died of a [[hemorrhage]] on his wedding night.{{sfn|Schütte|1921|pp=296, 306}}

=== After Attila ===
After Attila's death in 453, the Hunnic Empire faced an internal power struggle between its vassalized Germanic peoples and the Hunnic ruling body. Led by [[Ellak]], Attila's favored son and ruler of the [[Akatziri]], the Huns engaged the [[Gepid]] king [[Ardaric]] at the [[Battle of Nedao]], who led a Germanic coalition to overthrow Hunnic imperial authority. The [[Amali]] Goths would revolt the same year under [[Valamir]], allegedly defeating the Huns in a separate engagement.{{sfn|Heather|1996|p=124}} However, this did not result in the complete collapse of Hunnic power in the Carpathian region, but did result in the loss of many of their Germanic vassals. At the same time, the Huns were also dealing with the arrival of more [[Oghur (tribe)|Oghur]] [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speaking]] peoples from the East, including the [[Oghurs]], [[Saragurs]], [[Onogurs]], and the [[Sabirs]]. In 463, the Saragurs defeated the Akatziri, or Akatir Huns, and asserted dominance in the Pontic region.{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=123}}

The western Huns under [[Dengizich]] experienced difficulties in 461 when they were defeated by Valamir in a war against the [[Sadages]], a people allied with the Huns.{{sfn|Heather|1996|p=125}} His campaigning was also met with dissatisfaction from [[Ernak]], ruler of the Akatziri Huns, who wanted to focus on the incoming Oghur speaking peoples.{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=123}} Dengizich attacked the Romans in 467, without the assistance of Ernak. He was surrounded by the Romans and besieged, and came to an agreement that he would surrender if his people were given land for their herds and his starving forces given food. During the negotiations, a Hun in service of the Romans named Chelchel persuaded the enemy Goths to attack their Hun overlords. The Romans, under their General [[Aspar]] and with the help of his [[bucellarii]], then attacked the quarreling Goths and Huns, defeating them.{{sfn|Maenchen-Helfen|1973|pp=165–168}} In 469, Dengizich was defeated and killed in Thrace.{{sfn|Maenchen-Helfen|1973|p=168}}

After Dengizich's death, the Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as the [[Bulgars]].{{sfn|Maenchen-Helfen|1973|p=168}} Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the [[Kutrigur]] and [[Utigur]] Hunno-[[Bulgars]].{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=123}} This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the [[North Caucasian Huns]], were genuine Huns.{{sfnm|1a1=Kim|1y=2015|1p=136 |2a1=Sinor|2y=2005|2p=4228}} The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward.{{sfn|Róna-Tas|1999|p=309}}