Editing Horn of Africa (section)

===Modern history===
{{main|Italian Eritrea|Italian Somaliland|Italian East Africa|British Somaliland|French Somaliland|French Territory of the Afars and the Issas}}
{{see also|Dervish movement (Somali)|Agar Maqnat|British expedition to Abyssinia|First Italo-Abyssinian War|Second Italo-Abyssinian War|East African Campaign (World War II)|Somaliland Campaign|Ogaden War|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict|Ethiopian-Somali conflict|Somali Civil War|Piracy off the coast of Somalia}}
[[File:Africa 1909, Edward Hertslet (Map of Africa by treaty, 3rd edition).jpg|thumb|A 1909 map of Africa; the Horn of Africa is the easternmost projection of the African continent.]]
In the period following the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, when European powers [[Scramble for Africa|scrambled for territory in Africa]] and tried to establish [[coaling station]]s for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied [[Eritrea]]. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of [[Italy]]. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a [[Provinces of Ethiopia|province]] of [[Italian East Africa]] (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italian Somaliland]]. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Tesfagiorgis | first = Gebre Hiwet | title = Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | publisher = The Red Sea Press | year = 1993 | page = 111 | isbn = 978-0-932415-91-2 | access-date = 14 October 2015 | archive-date = 16 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230216165941/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,<ref>[http://www.statoids.com/uer.html Regions of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812040841/http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |date=12 August 2011 }} (accessed 17 November 2009)</ref> and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a [[UN Mandate]] until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950.

The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its [[Red Sea]] coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea#Aftermath|in 1962]]. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of [[Amharic]], the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a [[Eritrean War of Independence|30-year war]] against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|referendum]] in Eritrea (dubbed [[UNOVER]]) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.<ref name="Britannica_Eritrea-page20">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |title=Eritrea – The spreading revolution |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Article |access-date=16 October 2007 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012134946/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]].<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619042941/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php |date=19 June 2008 }}. ''International Herald Tribune''. 7 December 2005</ref>

[[File:Raheita Incident 1898.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eritrean Ascari]]s, colonial troops of the Italian Army, in a 1898 wood engraving]]
[[File:Porta Ai Giardini, Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|upright|Porta di Giardini (Gate Gardens) at Mogadishu market, [[Italian Somaliland]]]]
[[File:Engelse kameelruiters - English camel troopers.jpg|thumb|upright|British camel troopers in [[British Somaliland]]]]
[[File:Damagedsomalitank.jgp.jpg|thumb|upright|Somali engineers repair a captured Ethiopian [[T-34 tank|T-34/85 Model 1969 tank]] for use by the [[Western Somali Liberation Front]] during the [[Ogaden War]], March 1978]]
[[File:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|upright|United Nations soldiers, part of the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]], monitoring [[Eritrea–Ethiopia boundary]] (2005)]]

From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] situated in modern-day [[Djibouti]] was called ''Obock'' and was ruled by [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[Afar people|Afar]] [[Sultan]]s, local authorities with whom [[France]] signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.<ref name="Uwechue">Raph Uwechue, ''Africa year book and who's who'', (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.</ref><ref>Hugh Chisholm (ed.), ''The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information'', Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.</ref><ref name="Apcoatf">''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor & Francis), p.132.</ref> In 1894, [[Léonce Lagarde]] established a permanent French administration in the [[Djibouti (city)|city of Djibouti]] and named the region ''Côte française des Somalis'' ([[French Somaliland]]), a name which continued until 1967.

In 1958, on the eve of neighboring [[Somalia]]'s independence in 1960, a [[referendum]] was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115</ref> There was also reports of widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls.<ref>[[#Shillington|Shillington (2005)]], p. 360.</ref> The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006/> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999).<ref name=Barrington2006/> In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a [[2011 Djiboutian protests|series of protests]] against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger [[Arab Spring]] demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling [[People's Rally for Progress]] party was re-elected to office.

The [[Dervish movement (Nugaal)|Dervish]] existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation,<ref>I.M. Lewis, ''The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state'', (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78</ref> and the [[German people|Germans]] promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.<ref>Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405</ref> After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of [[Airstrike|aerial bombardment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samatar | first = Said Sheikh | title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism | url = https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama | url-access = limited | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1982 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama/page/n144 131]& 135 | isbn = 978-0-521-23833-5}}</ref> As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a [[protectorate]] of Britain. [[Italy]] faced similar opposition from Somali [[Sultan]]s and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until the [[Fascist|Fascist era]] in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military administration]]. Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a [[United Nations Trusteeship|trusteeship]] of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular [[referendum]], the [[constitution]] drafted in 1960 was ratified.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.</ref>

Due to its longstanding ties with the [[Arab world]], the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the [[Arab League]].<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.</ref> During the same year, the nation's former [[Socialism|socialist]] administration also chaired the [[Organization of African Unity]], the predecessor of the [[African Union]].<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.</ref> In 1991, the [[Somali Civil War]] broke out, which saw the dissolving of the union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the [[Puntland]] administration in the north.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news| title = The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia| newspaper = New York Times| date = 5 June 2006| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| access-date = 2 February 2010| first = Marc| last = Lacey| archive-date = 27 June 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110627215844/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| url-status = live}}</ref> Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either [[Civil law (legal system)|secular]], [[religious law|Islamic]] or [[customary law]], with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A [[Transitional Federal Government]] was subsequently created in 2004.<ref name=2009factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612204029/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 June 2007|title=Somalia|access-date=31 May 2009|date=14 May 2009|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> The [[Federal Government of Somalia]] was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|access-date=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012|archive-date=14 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014234626/http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] serves as the government's [[Legislature|legislative]] branch.<ref name="Gttsdpc">{{cite web|title=Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution|url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|access-date=2 August 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021547/http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>

Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Emperor Menelik II]] and [[Ras Gobena]].<ref name="Young">John Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192</ref> From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.'<ref name="Young"/><ref>the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. International Crisis Group. "Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" Africa Report No. 153, (4 September 2009) pp. 2</ref> He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.<ref>''Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire'' Edward C. Keefer, International Journal of African Studies'' Vol. 6 No. 3 (1973) page 470''</ref> Menelik had signed the [[Treaty of Wichale]] with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], pp. 13–14.</ref> In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.<ref name="Tekeste">[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14.</ref> The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.<ref name="Tekeste"/> This conflict erupted in the [[Battle of Adwa]] on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14, and ICG "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" pp 2; Italy lost over 4.600 nationals in this battle.</ref>

The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]], who came to power after [[Iyasu V of Ethiopia|Iyasu V]] was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]], after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to [[Italian East Africa]].<ref>Clapham, Christopher, "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), pp. 1062–3.</ref> Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the [[League of Nations]], delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's [[Time Person of the Year|''Time'' magazine Man of the Year]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730014234/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 July 2009 |title=Man of the Year |magazine=TIME |date=6 January 1936 |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> Following the entry of Italy into World War II, [[British Empire]] forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] in 1941.<ref>Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase", ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'', p. 1063.</ref>

Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[military junta]], the [[Derg]] led by [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], deposed him, and established a one-party [[communist state]], which was called the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]]. In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after the Somalia government of [[Siad Barre]] sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. By September 1977, the [[Military of Somalia|Somali army]] controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the [[USSR]], [[Cuba]], [[South Yemen]], [[East Germany]]<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dagne | first = Haile Gabriel | title = The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources | publisher = Lit; Global | year = 2006 | location = Münster, London | isbn = 978-3-8258-9535-8}}</ref> and [[North Korea]], including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops.

In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |title=Core Principles of Ethiopia's Foreign Policy: Ethiopia-Yemen relations |publisher=Ethioembassy.org.uk |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510230458/http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Zenawi died in 2012, but his [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.