Editing Harran (section)

=== Middle Ages (640–1271) ===

==== Harran under the caliphates ====
[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|left|thumb|Harran was briefly the capital of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] 744–750]]
Maurice's persecution of the pagans of Harran had little effect on the strength of the pagan community and Harran remained a largely pagan city.{{Sfn|Vedeshkin|2018|p=267}} When the armies of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], led by the general [[Iyad ibn Ghanm]], besieged Harran in the winter of 639–640 it was the pagans of the city who negotiated its peaceful surrender.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=17}} Ibn Ghanm is recorded to have given the pagans of Harran a new moon temple after the capture of the city.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=44}} Harran under Islamic rule became one of the most important settlements in the [[Diyar Mudar]] district.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} In 657, Caliph [[Ali]] asked the Harranians to aid him against [[Mu'awiya I]], the first [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph, but the Harranians instead sided with Mu'awiya at the [[Battle of Siffin]] in the same year. In response, it is said that Ali enacted a brutal massacre in Harran, exterminating most of the inhabitants.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=17}}

Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran was renovated{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} and prospered once more.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=17}} In 717, Caliph [[Umar II]] founded the first Muslim university at Harran, bringing many scholars from other cities in the caliphate (including [[Alexandria]]) and installing them in Harran.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} Harran was made the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate under its last caliph, [[Marwan II]], from 744 to 750.{{sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}}{{Sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=51}} The reason for Marwan moving his court to Harran is not known,{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=31}} but might be either to better monitor the troublesome eastern provinces of the caliphate{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} or due to the anti-Christian sentiment of the city's pagan population,{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=95}} who had never been disloyal to the Umayyads.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=31}} The move of the capital to Harran caused some outrage; the [[Banu Kalb]] tribe saw it as an abandonment of Syria and under [[Yazid ibn Khalid al-Qasri]] besieged the former capital of [[Damascus]] before being suppressed.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=87}} Harran did not continue to function as a capital under the succeeding [[Abbasid Caliphate]], though the city enjoyed some special privileges. When [[Al-Mansur]] ({{Reign|754|775}}) ordered the destruction of the walls of all cities in northern Mesopotamia, Harran was a notable exception.{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=95}}
[[File:Ancient city of Harran Ruins - Sanliurfa.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the medieval [[Harran University (Middle Ages)|Harran University]]]]
The [[Harran University (Middle Ages)|Harran University]]{{Efn||name=university}} underwent its golden age in the 8th century, particularly under the Abbasid caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] ({{Reign|786|809}}).{{sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}}{{efn|Harun al-Rashid is also famous for founding the [[House of Wisdom]] in [[Baghdad]], to which scholars from Harran would later be brought.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}}} Many prominent scholars of this time were educated at the university in subjects such as mathematics, philosophy, medicine and astrology. The university was also an important site for translations of documents from [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and Greek into Arabic{{sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}} and Harran flourished as a center of science and learning. Al-Rashid furthermore supplied Harran with a new water supply, constructing a canal from the [[Balikh River]].{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} At some point, [[Neoplatonism]] was introduced to Harranian intellectuals, though the precise timing is not clear. It might have been brought to Harran by the scholar [[Thābit ibn Qurra]] in the late 9th century, who could have learnt Neoplatonism in Baghdad. Alternatively, Neoplatonism might have been brought to Harran as early as the 6th century by Neoplatonists such as [[Simplicius of Cilicia]], who fled persecution in the Byzantine Empire.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=10}}

The local Harranian religion continued to develop as a blend of [[ancient Mesopotamian religion]] and Neoplatonism{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=90}} and Harran remained notorious for its strong pagan traditions long into the Islamic period.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} The city retained a highly heterogenous population that practiced many different religions. Some adopted [[syncretistic]] faiths tolerable by the Muslims, others continued to honor the old deities of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, and some primarily worshipped the stars and planets.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=|pp=17–18}}{{efn|The medieval Harranian worshippers of astronomical objects continued to use ancient names for the celestial bodies, alternating between Greek, Akkadian and Aramaic names (the moon for instance continued to be known as Sīn).{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=|pp=17–18}}}} The Harranian pagans considered themselves the heirs of ancient star-worshipping civilizations such as Babylonia, Greece, India, Persia and Egypt.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=35}} In addition to pagans, Harran was also home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, [[Samaritans]], [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], [[Manicheans]], and other groups.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2009|p=66, note 8}}.</ref>

In 830, Harun al-Rashid's son [[Al-Ma'mun]] ({{Reign|813|833}}) arrived at Harran with an army on his way to raid in the Byzantine Empire{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=29}} and intended to destroy the city due to its large pagan population. Al-Ma'mun asked the populace if they were Muslims, Christians or Jews ("[[People of the Book|people of the book]]" protected under Islamic law). Unable to claim that they were, the people of Harran instead claimed that they were "[[Sabians]]", a mysterious religious group also protected according to the Quran but who no one at the time knew who they were.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} Upon being inquired who their prophet was, the Harranians claimed that their prophet was the legendary Hellenistic figure [[Hermes Trismegistus]].{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=23}} There were many Islamic writers who saw through the claims of Harranians and still considered them to be pagans and not Sabians, and thus lacking any special right to toleration or protection.{{Sfn|Green|1992|p=122}} In 933, the Harranian pagans were ordered through a decree to convert to Islam, but a visitor to the city in the following year found that there were still pagan religious leaders operating a remaining public temple. Toleration of the pagans at Harran appears to have been renewed in the late 10th century.{{Sfn|Hutton|2006|p=141}}

==== Late Middle Ages ====
[[File:Numayrid dynasty.png|thumb|Harran served as the capital of the [[Numayrid dynasty|Numayrid Emirate]] (990–1081)|left]]
The power of the Abbasid Caliphate and its vassals in the region around Harran (the [[Hamdanid dynasty]]) declined at the end of the 10th century. A new local Arab dynasty emerged during this time, the [[Numayrid dynasty]], who ruled a small realm with Harran as its capital from 990 to 1081.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=31}} The toleration of paganism at Harran was at last revoked for the final time in the 11th century and the last moon temples were closed and destroyed. The precise date when this happened and the events surrounding it are unknown, perhaps coinciding with the city falling under the control of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]]{{Sfn|Hutton|2006|p=141}} in 1038 through the submission of the Numayrid ruler [[Shabīb ibn Waththāb]],{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=78}} or more likely with a failed anti-Uqaylid rebellion in 1083.{{Sfn|Hutton|2006|p=141}} [[Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad]] reported that a Sabian temple was destroyed by the [[Uqaylid dynasty]] governor Yahya ibn as-Shatir, who conquered Harran in 1081.{{Sfn|Van Bladel|2009|p=111}} In 1059,{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=31}} the [[Harran Castle]], presumably constructed in Byzantine times,{{Sfn|Binici|Binici|Akcan|Yardim|2020|p=1020}} was rebuilt and strengthened by the Numayrid ruler [[Manīʿ ibn Shabīb]].{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=31}} By the 1180s, Harran was fully devoted to Islam with little to no traces of its former moon cult.{{Sfn|Hutton|2006|p=141}}{{efn|The Arab geographer [[Ibn Jubayr]] visited Harran in the 1180s and noted that he found no memory or trace of the famous moon cult.{{Sfn|Hutton|2006|p=141}}}}

In the late 11th and early 12th century, political control in northern Mesopotamia and Syria was fragmented. Harran was an important city to the various local Muslim rulers as a counterweight to the nearby [[crusader states]]. Numayrid control of Harran came to an end in 1081 when the city was captured by the Uqaylid dynasty. It was then under the control of various Turkish princes; first [[Jikirmish]] of [[Mosul]] (1102–1106), then the [[Artuqids]] of [[Mardin]] (1106–1127) and then the [[Zengid dynasty]], which captured Harran under [[Imad al-Din Zengi]] in 1127.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|pp=31–32}}

In the 12th century, Harran at times fell under the influence of the [[County of Edessa]], a short-lived [[Crusader states|crusader state]]. There is no record of the crusaders ever conquering Harran but the Harran Castle preserves remnants of a Christian chapel with distinct crusader architecture, perhaps suggesting a peaceful crusader presence. The growth of Edessa under Christian rule contributed to the decline of Harran. Edessa is higher up the [[water table]] than Harran and as more wells were constructed in Edessa, those in Harran gradually dried up.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} Harran was in the 12th century still renowned for its ancient origins; a now lost work by [[Hammad al-Harrani]] made the claim that Harran had been the first city founded after the [[Genesis flood narrative|great flood]].{{Sfn|Robinson|1996|p=25}}
[[File:Reconstruction of Harran.png|thumb|Harran as it looked before its abandonment in the 13th century|upright=1.3]]
Despite the threat of [[water scarcity]], Harran continued to be an important town under the rule of the [[Ayyubid Sultanate]], which followed the Zengids.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} [[Saladin]] ({{Reign|1174|1193}}) at some point enlarged Harran's {{Interlanguage link|Harran Grand Mosque|lt=Grand Mosque|tr|Harran Ulu Camii}}{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} and thereafter granted Harran to his brother [[Al-Adil I]] (later sultan 1200–1218). Al-Adil later gave Harran to his son [[Al-Kamil]] (later sultan 1218–1238). Harran was then under the rule of Al-Kamil's brother [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus|Al-Ashraf Musa]] 1202–1228/1229, after whose death the city steadily declined in importance.{{Efn|As an example, the revenue from Harran declined from three million [[dirham]]s under Musa to only two million in 1242, less than fourteen years after the end of his rule.{{sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}}}} Harran was captured by Khwarazmians in 1237, driven from their homeland following the fall of the [[Khwarazmian Empire]], but the castle was retained and fortified by the Ayyubid ruler [[As-Salih Ayyub]] though he soon had to give it up to broker a deal with the Khwarazmians for military aid against [[Badr al-Din Lu'lu']] of Mosul. Harran was later regained from the Khwarazmians by the Ayyubids in 1240 by [[An-Nasir Yusuf]] of Aleppo.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}}

Harran was captured by the [[Mongol Empire]] under [[Hulagu Khan]] in 1259{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}} or 1260{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}}{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} through the peaceful surrender of its governor.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}} The Harran Castle, as was traditional placed under a different governor, continued to resist for some time until one of the towers were breached.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}} Under the Mongols, Harran continued to flourish for a few years as a major urban center.{{Sfn|Binici|Binici|Akcan|Yardim|2020|p=1019}} Mongol control of Harran was immediately contested by the [[Sultanate of Rum]]{{Sfn|Binici|Binici|Akcan|Yardim|2020|p=1019}} and the [[Mamluk Sultanate]].{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} The Mongols decided to abandon Harran in 1271,{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=34}} deporting the population to the nearby cities of [[Mardin]]{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=34}} and [[Mosul]].{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} Accounts differ concerning the reason for the abandonment and the state in which the city was left. One account states that the city had been damaged in a battle against the Turks in the year prior, motivating the abandonment,{{Sfn|Binici|Binici|Akcan|Yardim|2020|p=1019}} whereas another states that the Mongols themselves caused the damage during the abandonment.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} The Mongols are also variously stated to either have simply walled up the gates but otherwise left what remained intact{{Sfn|Frew|1999}} or to have pillaged the city for building materials before burning down the remnants.{{Sfn|Sinclair|1990|p=32}} One major reason for the abandonment was likely the decreasing water supply. It was impossible to sustain the population size of Harran with its water storage systems in disrepair and its wells no longer producing enough water.{{Sfn|Lloyd|Brice|Gadd|1951|p=|pp=83–84}} Another possible reason for the abandonment was the difficulty to retain and defend Harran and the little strategic value offered by the city in return.{{Sfn|Rice|1952|p=45}}