Editing Goths (section)

===3rd century raids on the Roman Empire===
{{Further|Crisis of the Third Century|Battle of Abritus|Battle of Naissus}}
[[File:Gothic raids in the 3rd century.jpg|right|upright=1.35|thumb|Gothic invasions in the 3rd century]]
The first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack of [[Histria (Sinoe)|Histria]] in 238.{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}{{sfn|Bennett|2004}} The first references to the Goths in the 3rd century call them ''Scythians'', as this area, known as Scythia, had historically been occupied by an unrelated people of that name.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=13}} It is in the late 3rd century that the name ''Goths'' ({{langx|la|Gothi}}) is first mentioned.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=20}} Ancient authors do not identify the Goths with the earlier Gutones.<ref name="Wolfram_13">{{harvnb|Wolfram|1990|pp=13}}. "No ancient ethnographer made a connection between the Goths and the Gutones. The Gutonic immigrants became Goths the very moment the Mediterranean world considered them "Scythians".</ref><ref name="Christensen_343"/> [[Philologist]]s and [[linguist]]s have no doubt that the names are linked.<ref name="Heather_115">{{harvnb|Heather|2010|p=115}}. "In the period of Dacian and Sarmatian dominance, groups known as Goths – or perhaps 'Gothones' or 'Guthones' – inhabited lands far to the north-west, beside the Baltic. Tacitus placed them there at the end of the first century AD, and Ptolemy did likewise in the middle of the second, the latter explicitly among a number of groups said to inhabit the mouth of the Vistula. Philologists have no doubt, despite the varying transliterations into Greek and Latin, that it is the same group name that suddenly shifted its epicentre from northern Poland to the Black Sea in the third century."</ref><ref name="Christensen_42">{{harvnb|Christensen|2002|p=41}}. "However, linguists believe there is an indisputable connection."</ref>

On the [[Pontic steppe]] the Goths quickly adopted several nomadic customs from the Sarmatians.{{sfn|McNeill}} They excelled at [[horsemanship]], [[archery]] and [[falconry]],{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=209–10}} and were also accomplished [[agriculture|agriculturalists]]{{sfn|Kershaw|2013|p=}} and [[Seamanship|seafarers]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} [[J. B. Bury]] describes the Gothic period as "the only non-nomadic episode in the history of the steppe."{{sfn|Bury|1913|p=428}} [[William H. McNeill (historian)|William H. McNeill]] compares the migration of the Goths to that of the early [[Mongols]], who migrated southward from the forests and came to dominate the eastern [[Eurasian steppe]] around the same time as the Goths in the west.{{sfn|McNeill}} From the 240s at the earliest, Goths were heavily recruited into the [[Roman Army]] to fight in the [[Roman–Persian Wars]], notably participating at the [[Battle of Misiche]] in 244.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=20, 44}} An [[Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht|inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht]] in [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Middle Persian|Persian]] and Greek commemorates the Persian victory over the Romans and the troops drawn from ''gwt W g'rmny xštr'', the Gothic and German kingdoms,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Altheim |first1=Franz |title=Geschichte der Hunnen. Erster Band: Von den Anfängen bis zum Einbruch in Europa |date=1969 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin |pages=243 |language=German |chapter=Dichtung}}</ref> which is probably a Parthian gloss for the [[Danubian Limes|Danubian (Gothic) ''limes'']] and the [[Limes Germanicus|Germanic ''limes'']].{{sfn|Sprengling|1953|pp=3–4}}

Meanwhile, Gothic raids on the Roman Empire continued,{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=18}} In 250–51, the Gothic king [[Cniva]] [[Siege of Philippopolis (250)|captured the city of Philippopolis]] and inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the [[Battle of Abrittus]], in which the Roman Emperor [[Decius]] was killed.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=128}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}} This was one of the most disastrous defeats in the history of the Roman army.{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}

The first Gothic seaborne raids took place in the 250s. The first two incursions into [[Asia Minor]] took place between 253 and 256, and are attributed to Boranoi by [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]]. This may not be an ethnic term but may just mean "people from the north". It is unknown if Goths were involved in these first raids. [[Gregory Thaumaturgus]] attributes a third attack to Goths and Boradoi, and claims that some, "forgetting that they were men of Pontus and Christians," joined the invaders.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp=18–19}} An unsuccessful attack on [[Pityus]] was followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus and [[Trabzon]] and ravaged large areas in the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]. In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas of [[Bithynia]] and the [[Propontis]], including the cities of [[Chalcedon]], [[Nicomedia]], [[Nicaea]], [[Apamea Myrlea]], [[Cius]] and [[Bursa]]. By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control over [[Crimea]] and the [[Kerch|Bosporus]] and captured several cities on the [[Euxine]] coast, including [[Olbia, Ukraine|Olbia]] and [[Tyras]], which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}{{sfn|Bowman|Cameron|Garnsey|2005|pp=223–29}}

After a 10-year hiatus, the Goths and the [[Heruli]], with a raiding fleet of 500 ships,{{sfn|Syncellus|1829|p=717}} sacked [[Heraclea Pontica]], [[Cyzicus]] and [[Byzantium]].{{sfn|Bury|1911|pp=203–06}} They were defeated by the [[Roman navy]] but managed to escape into the [[Aegean Sea]], where they ravaged the islands of [[Lemnos]] and [[Scyros]], [[Battle of Thermopylae (267)|broke through Thermopylae]] and sacked several cities of southern Greece ([[Achaea (Roman province)|province of Achaea]]) including [[Athens]], [[Ancient Corinth#Roman era|Corinth]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]] and [[Sparta]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} Then an Athenian militia, led by the historian [[Dexippus]], pushed the invaders to the north where they were intercepted by the Roman army under [[Gallienus]].<ref name="AH_13">{{harvnb|Disputed|1932|p=}}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Gallieni_duo*.html The Two Gallieni] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725071318/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Gallieni_duo%2A.html |date=25 July 2021 }}, 13</ref>{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} He won an important victory near the Nessos ([[Mesta River|Nestos]]) river, on the boundary between [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Thrace]], the Dalmatian cavalry of the Roman army earning a reputation as good fighters. Reported barbarian casualties were 3,000 men.<ref name="Zosimus_I.42">{{harvnb|Zosimus|1814|p=}}, [[:Wikisource:New History/Book the First|I.42–43]]</ref>{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} Subsequently, the Heruli leader [[Naulobatus]] came to terms with the Romans.{{sfn|Syncellus|1829|p=717}}{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}

After [[Gallienus]] was assassinated outside [[Milan]] in the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army, [[Claudius Gothicus|Claudius]] was proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule. Claudius' immediate concerns were with the [[Alamanni]], who had invaded [[Raetia]] and Italy. After he defeated them in the [[Battle of Lake Benacus]], he was finally able to take care of the invasions in the [[Balkan]] provinces.<ref name="Bray">{{harvnb|Bray|1997|pp=279–91}}</ref>{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}

In the meantime, a second and larger sea-borne invasion had started. An enormous coalition consisting of Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi), Gepids and Peucini, led again by the Heruli, assembled at the mouth of river Tyras (Dniester).{{efn|The ''[[Augustan History]]'' mentions Scythians, Greuthungi, Tervingi, Gepids, Peucini, Celts and Heruli. Zosimus names Scythians, Heruli, Peucini and Goths.}}{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} The ''[[Augustan History]]'' and Zosimus claim a total number of 2,000–6,000 ships and 325,000 men.<ref name="AH_6">{{harvnb|Disputed|1932|p=}}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html The Life of Claudius ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401031639/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius%2A.html |date=1 April 2021 }}, 6</ref> This is probably a gross exaggeration but remains indicative of the scale of the invasion.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} After failing to storm some towns on the coasts of the western [[Black Sea]] and the [[Danube]] ([[Constanţa|Tomi]], [[Marcianopolis]]), the invaders attacked [[Byzantium]] and [[Üsküdar|Chrysopolis]]. Part of their fleet was wrecked, either because of the Goth's inexperience in sailing through the violent currents of the [[Propontis]]<ref name="Zosimus_I.42"/> or because they were defeated by the Roman navy.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} Then they entered the [[Aegean Sea]] and a detachment ravaged the Aegean islands as far as [[Crete]], [[Rhodes]] and [[Cyprus]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} According to the ''Augustan History'', the Goths achieved no success on this expedition because they were struck by the [[Cyprianic Plague]].<ref name="AH_12">{{harvnb|Disputed|1932|p=}}, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html The Life of Claudius ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401031639/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius%2A.html |date=1 April 2021 }}, 12</ref> The fleet probably also sacked [[Troy]] and [[Ephesus]], damaging the [[Temple of Artemis]], though the temple was repaired and then later torn down by Christians a century later, one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} While their main force had constructed siege works and was close to taking the cities of [[Thessalonica]] and [[Cassandreia]], it retreated to the Balkan interior at the news that the emperor was advancing.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}

[[File:East-Hem 300ad (cropped).jpg|right|upright=1.35|thumb|Europe in AD 300, showing the distribution of the Goths near the [[Black Sea]]]]

Learning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy.{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=150}} They were [[Battle of Naissus|engaged]] near Naissus by a Roman army led by Claudius advancing from the north. The battle most likely took place in 269, and was fiercely contested. Large numbers on both sides were killed but, at the critical point, the Romans tricked the Goths into an ambush by pretending to retreat. Some 50,000 Goths were allegedly killed or taken captive and their base at [[Thessalonika]] destroyed.<ref name="Zosimus_I.42"/>{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}} Apparently [[Aurelian]], who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle. Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=52–56}}{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}} The battle ensured the survival of the [[Roman Empire]] for another two centuries.{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=150}}

In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership of [[Cannabaudes]] again launched an invasion of the [[Roman Empire]], but were defeated by [[Aurelian]], who, however, did surrender [[Dacia]] beyond the [[Danube]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=56}}{{sfn|Bennett|2004}}{{sfn|Thompson|1973|pp=606–09}}

Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault on [[Asia Minor]], where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great trouble in [[Colchis]], Pontus, [[Cappadocia]], [[Galatia]] and even [[Cilicia]].{{sfn|Bowman|Cameron|Garnsey|2005|pp=53–54}} They were defeated sometime in 276 by Emperor [[Marcus Claudius Tacitus]].{{sfn|Bowman|Cameron|Garnsey|2005|pp=53–54}}

By the late 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, separated by the [[Dniester River]]: the [[Thervingi]] and the [[Greuthungi]].{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=24}} The [[Gepids]], who lived northwest of the Goths, are also attested as this time.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=57–58}} Jordanes writes that the Gepids shared common origins with the Goths.{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|pp=57–58}}{{sfn|Jordanes|1915|p=xvii (94–95)}}

In the late 3rd century, as recorded by Jordanes, the Gepids, under their king [[Fastida]], utterly defeated the Burgundians, and then attacked the Goths and their king Ostrogotha. Out of this conflict, Ostrogotha and the Goths emerged victorious.{{sfn|Jordanes|1915|pp=xvii (96–100)}}{{sfn|Wolfram|1990|p=58}} In the last decades of the 3rd century, large numbers of [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]] are recorded as fleeing Dacia for the Roman Empire, having probably been driven from the area by Goths.{{sfn|Heather|2010|pp=109–20}}