Editing Genetically modified organism (section)

== Plants ==
{{Main|Genetically modified plant}}
[[File:Arabidopsis thaliana tissue culture in fingers.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tissue culture]] used to regenerate ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'']]
Plants have been engineered for scientific research, to display new flower colors, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Many plants are [[pluripotent]], meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant. This ability can be taken advantage of by genetic engineers; by selecting for cells that have been successfully transformed in an adult plant a new plant can then be grown that contains the transgene in every cell through a process known as [[tissue culture]].<ref name=":9">{{cite book | vauthors = Walter P, Roberts K, Raff M, Lewis J, Johnson A, Alberts B |date=2002 |chapter=Studying Gene Expression and Function |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26818/ |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |publisher=Garland Science | edition = 4th }}</ref>

Much of the advances in the field of genetic engineering has come from experimentation with [[Nicotiana|tobacco]]. Major advances in tissue culture and [[plant cell]]ular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ganapathi TR, Suprasanna P, Rao PS, Bapat VA |date=2004 |title=Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) — A Model System for Tissue Culture Interventions and Genetic Engineering |journal=Indian Journal of Biotechnology |volume=3 |pages=171–184 }}</ref> It was the first plant to be altered using genetic engineering and is considered a model organism for not only genetic engineering, but a range of other fields.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Koszowski B, Goniewicz ML, Czogała J, Sobczak A|date=2007|title=Genetycznie modyfikowany tytoń – szansa czy zagrozenie dla palaczy?|trans-title=Genetically modified tobacco--chance or threat for smokers?|url=http://www.wple.net/plek/numery_2007/numer-10-2007/908-912-koszowskigoniewicz-czogala.pdf|journal=Przeglad Lekarski|language=pl|volume=64|issue=10|pages=908–12|pmid=18409340|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123185008/http://www.wple.net/plek/numery_2007/numer-10-2007/908-912-koszowskigoniewicz-czogala.pdf|archive-date=23 January 2013}}</ref> As such the transgenic tools and procedures are well established making tobacco one of the easiest plants to transform.<ref>{{cite book|title=Transgenic Horticultural Crops: Challenges and Opportunities | vauthors = Mou B, Scorza R |date=15 June 2011 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-9379-7 |pages=104 }}</ref> Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. Its small genome and short life cycle makes it easy to manipulate and it contains many [[Homology (biology)|homologs]] to important crop species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gepstein S, Horwitz BA | title = The impact of Arabidopsis research on plant biotechnology | journal = Biotechnology Advances | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 403–14 | date = 1995 | pmid = 14536094 | doi=10.1016/0734-9750(95)02003-l}}</ref> It was the first plant [[Sequencing|sequenced]], has a host of online resources available and can be transformed by simply dipping a flower in a transformed ''Agrobacterium'' solution.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holland CK, Jez JM | title = Arabidopsis: the original plant chassis organism | journal = Plant Cell Reports | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 1359–1366 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 29663032 | doi = 10.1007/s00299-018-2286-5 | bibcode = 2018PCelR..37.1359H | s2cid = 253806270 }}</ref>

In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes. The simplest way to do this is to remove the gene and see what [[phenotype]] develops compared to the [[wild type]] form. Any differences are possibly the result of the missing gene. Unlike [[Mutagenesis|mutagenisis]], genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.<ref name=":9" /> Some genes are only expressed in certain tissues, so reporter genes, like [[GUS reporter system|GUS]], can be attached to the gene of interest allowing visualization of the location.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jefferson RA, Kavanagh TA, Bevan MW | title = GUS fusions: beta-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants | journal = The EMBO Journal | volume = 6 | issue = 13 | pages = 3901–7 | date = December 1987 | pmid = 3327686 | pmc = 553867 | doi=10.1002/j.1460-2075.1987.tb02730.x}}</ref> Other ways to test a gene is to alter it slightly and then return it to the plant and see if it still has the same effect on phenotype. Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong [[Promoter (biology)|promoter]] and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different [[Developmental biology|developmental stages]].<ref name=":9" />

[[File:Blue Rose APPLAUSE.jpg|thumb|Suntory "blue" rose]]

Some genetically modified plants are purely [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]]. They are modified for flower color, fragrance, flower shape and plant architecture.<ref name=":10">{{cite web |url= http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/47/default.asp|title=Biotechnology in Ornamental Plants – Pocket K  |website=www.isaaa.org|access-date=17 December 2018}}</ref> The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chandler SF, Sanchez C | title = Genetic modification; the development of transgenic ornamental plant varieties | journal = Plant Biotechnology Journal | volume = 10 | issue = 8 | pages = 891–903 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22537268 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2012.00693.x | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2012PBioJ..10..891C }}</ref> [[Carnations]] were released in 1997, with the most popular genetically modified organism, a [[blue rose]] (actually [[Lavender (color)|lavender]] or [[mauve]]) created in 2004.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Nosowitz D  | url = http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2011-09/suntory-creates-mythical-blue-or-um-lavender-ish-rose | title = Suntory Creates Mythical Blue (Or, Um, Lavender-ish) Rose | work = Popular Science | date = 15 September 2011 | access-date = 30 August 2012 }}</ref> The roses are sold in Japan, the United States, and Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nb20110916a5.html|title=Suntory to sell blue roses overseas |date=11 September 2011|work=[[The Japan Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122063637/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nb20110916a5.html|archive-date=22 November 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=30 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/09/blue-roses-for-sale/|title=World's First 'Blue' Rose Soon Available in U.S|date=14 September 2011|magazine=Wired}}</ref> Other genetically modified ornamentals include ''[[Chrysanthemum]]'' and ''[[Petunia]]''.<ref name=":10" /> As well as increasing aesthetic value there are plans to develop ornamentals that use less water or are resistant to the cold, which would allow them to be grown outside their natural environments.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Boehm|url=https://www.biooekonomie-bw.de/en/articles/news/green-genetic-engineering-now-conquers-the-ornamental-plant-market-as-well/|title=Green genetic engineering now conquers the ornamental plant market as well|work=Bioeconomy in Baden-Württemberg|date=27 October 2009|access-date=17 December 2018|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403222831/https://www.biooekonomie-bw.de/en/articles/news/green-genetic-engineering-now-conquers-the-ornamental-plant-market-as-well/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

It has been proposed to genetically modify some plant species threatened by extinction to be resistant to invasive plants and diseases, such as the [[emerald ash borer]] in North American and the fungal disease, ''[[Ceratocystis platani]]'', in European [[Platanus|plane trees]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|vauthors=Adams JM, Piovesan G, Strauss S, Brown S|date=1 August 2002|title=The Case for Genetic Engineering of Native and Landscape Trees against Introduced Pests and Diseases|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=16|issue=4|pages=874–79|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00523.x|bibcode=2002ConBi..16..874A |s2cid=86697592 }}</ref> The [[papaya ringspot virus]] devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic [[papaya]] plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Tripathi S, Suzuki J, Gonsalves D | title = Development of genetically engineered resistant papaya for papaya ringspot virus in a timely manner: a comprehensive and successful approach | chapter = Development of Genetically Engineered Resistant Papaya for ''papaya ringspot virus'' in a Timely Manner: A Comprehensive and Successful Approach | series = Methods in Molecular Biology | volume = 354 | pages = 197–240 | date = 2007 | pmid = 17172756 | doi = 10.1385/1-59259-966-4:197 | isbn = 978-1-59259-966-0 }}</ref> However, genetic modification for conservation in plants remains mainly speculative. A unique concern is that a transgenic species may no longer bear enough resemblance to the original species to truly claim that the original species is being conserved. Instead, the transgenic species may be genetically different enough to be considered a new species, thus diminishing the conservation worth of genetic modification.<ref name=":0" />

=== Crops ===

{{Main|Genetically modified crops}}{{See also|Genetically modified food}}
[[File:Bt plants.png|thumb|upright|Wild type peanut ('''top''') and transgenic peanut with ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' gene added ('''bottom''') exposed to [[Elasmopalpus|cornstalk borer larva]]|alt=]]
Genetically modified crops are genetically modified plants that are used in [[agriculture]]. The first crops developed were used for animal or human food and provide resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, spoilage or chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a [[herbicide]]). The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the [[Nutrient profiling|nutrient profile]]. Third generation genetically modified crops could be used for non-food purposes, including the production of [[Plant manufactured pharmaceuticals|pharmaceutical agents]], [[biofuels]], and other industrially useful goods, as well as for [[bioremediation]].<ref name=":12">{{cite book|title=Genetically Modified Crops and Agricultural Development| vauthors = Qaim M |date=29 April 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-40572-2|pages=1–10|chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

[[File:Btcornafrica.jpg|thumb | Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic [[Bt corn|''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) corn]]|alt=|left]]

There are three main aims to agricultural advancement; increased production, improved conditions for agricultural workers and [[sustainability]]. GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different [[abiotic stress]]es. Despite this potential, as of 2018, the commercialized crops are limited mostly to [[cash crop]]s like cotton, soybean, maize and canola and the vast majority of the introduced traits provide either herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.<ref name=":12" /> Soybeans accounted for half of all genetically modified crops planted in 2014.<ref name="isaaa2">{{cite web|url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/49/default.asp|title=Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014 – ISAAA Brief 49-2014|publisher=ISAAA.org|access-date=15 September 2016}}</ref> Adoption by farmers has been rapid, between 1996 and 2013, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100.<ref name="James2013">ISAAA 2013 Annual Report [http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/46/executivesummary/ Executive Summary, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2013] ISAAA Brief 46-2013, Retrieved 6 August 2014</ref> Geographically though the spread has been uneven, with strong growth in the [[Americas]] and parts of Asia and little in Europe and Africa.<ref name=":12" /> Its [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] spread has been more even, with approximately 54% of worldwide GM crops grown in [[Developing country|developing countries]] in 2013.<ref name="James2013" /> Although doubts have been raised,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/business/gmo-promise-falls-short.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/business/gmo-promise-falls-short.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=Doubts About the Promised Bounty of Genetically Modified Crops| vauthors = Hakim D |date=29 October 2016|work=The New York Times|access-date=5 May 2017|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers through decreased pesticide use as well as increased crop yield and farm profit.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Areal FJ, Riesgo L, Rodríguez-Cerezo E|date=February 2013|title=Economic and agronomic impact of commercialized GM crops: a meta-analysis|journal=The Journal of Agricultural Science|volume=151|issue=1|pages=7–33|doi=10.1017/S0021859612000111|s2cid=85891950 |issn=0021-8596}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Finger R, El Benni N, Kaphengst T, Evans C, Herbert S, Lehmann B, Morse S, Stupak N | display-authors = 6 |title=A Meta Analysis on Farm-Level Costs and Benefits of GM Crops |journal=Sustainability |date=10 May 2011 |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=743–762 |doi=10.3390/su3050743 |doi-access=free | bibcode = 2011Sust....3..743F |hdl=20.500.11850/42242 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Klümper W, Qaim M|date=3 November 2014|title=A meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=11|pages=e111629|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k1629K|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0111629|pmc=4218791|pmid=25365303 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a [[glyphosate]] or [[glufosinate]] based one. Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties;<ref name=":03">{{cite journal | vauthors = Darmency H | title = Pleiotropic effects of herbicide-resistance genes on crop yield: a review | journal = Pest Management Science | volume = 69 | issue = 8 | pages = 897–904 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23457026 | doi = 10.1002/ps.3522 }}</ref> in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Green JM | title = Current state of herbicides in herbicide-resistant crops | journal = Pest Management Science | volume = 70 | issue = 9 | pages = 1351–7 | date = September 2014 | doi = 10.1002/ps.3727 | pmid = 24446395 }}</ref> Most currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' bacterium and code for [[delta endotoxin]]s. A few use the genes that encode for [[vegetative insecticidal protein]]s.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-06892-3_10 |chapter=Sustainable Management of Insect-Resistant Crops |title=Plant Biotechnology |pages=115–127 |year=2014 | vauthors = Fleischer SJ, Hutchison WD, Naranjo SE |isbn=978-3-319-06891-6 }}</ref> The only gene commercially used to provide insect protection that does not originate from ''B. thuringiensis'' is the [[Cowpea]] [[trypsin inhibitor]] (CpTI). CpTI was first approved for use cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing trials in rice.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.isaaa.org/gmapprovaldatabase/event/default.asp?EventID=78&Event=SGK321 |title=SGK321 | work = GM Approval Database | publisher = ISAAA.org |access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="Qiu_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Qiu J | title = Is China ready for GM rice? | journal = Nature | volume = 455 | issue = 7215 | pages = 850–2 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18923484 | doi = 10.1038/455850a | doi-access = free }}</ref> Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.<ref name="isaaa2" />
[[File:Golden Rice.jpg|left|thumb|[[Golden rice]] compared to white rice]]
[[Golden rice]] is the most well known GM crop that is aimed at increasing nutrient value. It has been engineered with three genes that [[biosynthesis]]e [[beta-carotene]], a precursor of [[Retinol|vitamin A]], in the edible parts of rice.<ref name="ye2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye X, Al-Babili S, Klöti A, Zhang J, Lucca P, Beyer P, Potrykus I | title = Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm | journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5451 | pages = 303–5 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10634784 | doi = 10.1126/science.287.5451.303 | bibcode = 2000Sci...287..303Y | s2cid = 40258379 }}</ref> It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a [[Vitamin A deficiency|shortage of dietary vitamin A]],<ref>{{cite web | title = 'Green revolution' hero | quote = One existing crop, genetically engineered 'golden rice' that produces vitamin A, already holds enormous promise for reducing blindness and dwarfism that result from a vitamin-A deficient diet. | vauthors  = Frist B | work = [[The Washington Times]]| date = 21 November 2006 | url = http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20061120-094716-8709r.htm }}</ref> a deficiency which each year is estimated to kill 670,000 children under the age of 5<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, Mathers C, Rivera J | title = Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences | journal = Lancet | volume = 371 | issue = 9608 | pages = 243–60 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18207566 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0 | author9 = Maternal Child Undernutrition Study Group | s2cid = 3910132 }}</ref> and cause an additional 500,000 cases of irreversible childhood blindness.<ref name="humphery1992">{{cite journal | vauthors = Humphrey JH, West KP, Sommer A | title = Vitamin A deficiency and attributable mortality among under-5-year-olds | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 225–32 | date = 1992 | pmid = 1600583 | pmc = 2393289 }}</ref> The original golden rice produced 1.6μg/g of the [[carotenoid]]s, with further development increasing this 23 times.<ref name="paine2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Paine JA, Shipton CA, Chaggar S, Howells RM, Kennedy MJ, Vernon G, Wright SY, Hinchliffe E, Adams JL, Silverstone AL, Drake R | title = Improving the nutritional value of Golden Rice through increased pro-vitamin A content | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 482–7 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15793573 | doi = 10.1038/nbt1082 | s2cid = 632005 }}</ref> It gained its first approvals for use as food in 2018.<ref name="GR2E">{{cite web |url= https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/05/29/us-fda-approves-gmo-golden-rice-as-safe-to-eat/ |title= US FDA approves GMO Golden Rice as safe to eat | work = Genetic Literacy Project |access-date=30 May 2018|date= 29 May 2018 }}</ref>

Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of [[biopharmaceutical]]s in [[bioreactors]], a process known as [[Pharming (genetics)|pharming]]. Work has been done with [[Lemna|duckweed]] ''[[Lemna minor]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gasdaska JR, Spencer D, Dickey L | title = Advantages of Therapeutic Protein Production in the Aquatic Plant ''Lemna'' | journal = BioProcessing Journal | date = March 2003 | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 49–56 | doi = 10.12665/J22.Gasdaska | url = http://www.bioprocessingjournal.com/bioprocessingjournal.com/index.php/article-downloads/329-j22-advantages-of-therapeutic-protein-production-in-the-aquatic-plant-lemna }}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the [[algae]] ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]''<ref>(10 December 2012) [http://phys.org/news/2012-12-algae-complex-anti-cancer-drug.html "Engineering algae to make complex anti-cancer 'designer' drug"]. ''PhysOrg'', Retrieved 15 April 2013</ref> and the [[moss]] ''[[Physcomitrella patens]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Büttner-Mainik A, Parsons J, Jérôme H, Hartmann A, Lamer S, Schaaf A, Schlosser A, Zipfel PF, Reski R, Decker EL | title = Production of biologically active recombinant human factor H in Physcomitrella | journal = Plant Biotechnology Journal | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 373–83 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20723134 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2010.00552.x | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011PBioJ...9..373B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baur A, Reski R, Gorr G | title = Enhanced recovery of a secreted recombinant human growth factor using stabilizing additives and by co-expression of human serum albumin in the moss Physcomitrella patens | journal = Plant Biotechnology Journal | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–40 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 17129315 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2005.00127.x | doi-access =  | bibcode = 2005PBioJ...3..331B }}</ref> Biopharmaceuticals produced include [[cytokine]]s, [[hormone]]s, [[Antibody|antibodies]], [[enzyme]]s and vaccines, most of which are accumulated in the plant seeds. Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.<ref name=":11">{{cite book|title=Plant Biotechnology: New Products and Applications|vauthors=Hammond J, McGarvey P, Yusibov V|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-60234-4|pages=7–8}}</ref> Other options for bioreactors are [[biopolymer]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Börnke F, Broer I | title = Tailoring plant metabolism for the production of novel polymers and platform chemicals | journal = Current Opinion in Plant Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 354–62 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20171137 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbi.2010.01.005 | bibcode = 2010COPB...13..353B }}</ref> and [[biofuel]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lehr F, Posten C | title = Closed photo-bioreactors as tools for biofuel production | journal = Current Opinion in Biotechnology | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 280–5 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19501503 | doi = 10.1016/j.copbio.2009.04.004 }}</ref> Unlike bacteria, plants can [[Post-translational modification|modify the proteins post-translationally]], allowing them to make more complex molecules. They also pose less risk of being contaminated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agbiosafety.unl.edu/biopharm.shtml|title=UNL's AgBiosafety for Educators|website=agbiosafety.unl.edu|access-date=18 December 2018}}</ref> Therapeutics have been cultured in transgenic carrot and tobacco cells,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://protalix.com/technology/procellex-platform/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027101102/http://protalix.com/procellex-platform/overview-procellex-platform.asp|url-status=dead|title=ProCellEx® Platform|archive-date=27 October 2012|website=Protalix Biotherapeutics}}</ref> including a drug treatment for [[Gaucher's disease]].<ref>Gali Weinreb and Koby Yeshayahou for Globes 2 May 2012. [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 "FDA approves Protalix Gaucher treatment"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529030847/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725|date=29 May 2013}}</ref>

Vaccine production and storage has great potential in transgenic plants. Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.<ref name=":11" /> As well as purifying vaccines expressed in plants it is also possible to produce edible vaccines in plants. Edible vaccines stimulate the [[immune system]] when ingested to protect against certain diseases. Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability. Also being housed within plant cells provides some protection from the gut acids upon digestion. However the cost of developing, regulating, and containing transgenic plants is high, leading to most current plant-based vaccine development being applied to [[veterinary medicine]], where the controls are not as strict.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Concha C, Cañas R, Macuer J, Torres MJ, Herrada AA, Jamett F, Ibáñez C | title = Disease Prevention: An Opportunity to Expand Edible Plant-Based Vaccines? | journal = Vaccines | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 14 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28556800 | pmc = 5492011 | doi = 10.3390/vaccines5020014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Genetically modified crops have been proposed as one of the ways to reduce farming-related {{CO2}} emissions due to higher yield, reduced use of pesticides, reduced use of tractor fuel and no tillage. According to a 2021 study, in EU alone widespread adoption of GE crops would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 33 million tons of {{CO2}} equivalent or 7.5% of total farming-related emissions.<ref>{{Cite bioRxiv|date=10 February 2021|title=The climate benefits of yield increases in genetically engineered crops |biorxiv=10.1101/2021.02.10.430488 |last1=Kovak |first1=Emma |last2=Qaim |first2=Matin |last3=Blaustein-Rejto |first3=Dan}}</ref>