Editing Gabriel Fauré (section)

==Music==
{{Main|List of compositions by Gabriel Fauré}}
[[File:Faure Requiem Manuscript.gif|right|thumb|alt=Page of musical manuscript|Manuscript page of the [[Requiem (Fauré)|Requiem]]]]
[[Aaron Copland]] wrote that although Fauré's works can be divided into the usual "early", "middle" and "late" periods, there is no such radical difference between his first and last manners as is evident with many other composers. Copland found premonitions of late Fauré in even the earliest works, and traces of the early Fauré in the works of his old age: "The themes, harmonies, form, have remained essentially the same, but with each new work they have all become more fresh, more personal, more profound."<ref name=copland/> When Fauré was born, Berlioz and Chopin were still composing; the latter was among Fauré's early influences.<ref>Orledge, p. 59; and Nectoux (1991), p. 48</ref> In his later years Fauré developed compositional techniques that foreshadowed the [[atonal]] music of [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]],<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 415</ref> and, later still, drew discreetly on the techniques of jazz.<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 401</ref> Duchen writes that early works such as the ''Cantique de Jean Racine'' are in the tradition of French nineteenth-century romanticism, yet his late works are as modern as any of the works of his pupils.<ref>Duchen, p. 6</ref>

Influences on Fauré, particularly in his early work, included not only Chopin but Mozart and Schumann. The authors of ''[[The Record Guide]]'' (1955), [[Edward Sackville-West, 5th Baron Sackville|Sackville-West]] and [[Desmond Shawe-Taylor (music critic)|Shawe-Taylor]], wrote that Fauré learnt restraint and beauty of surface from Mozart, tonal freedom and long melodic lines from Chopin, "and from Schumann, the sudden felicities in which his development sections abound, and those codas in which whole movements are briefly but magically illuminated."<ref>Sackville-West, pp. 263–264</ref> His work was based on the strong understanding of harmonic structures that he gained at the [[Louis Niedermeyer|École Niedermeyer]] from Niedermeyer's successor [[Gustave Lefèvre]].<ref name=grove/> Lefèvre wrote the book ''Traité d'harmonie'' (Paris, 1889), in which he sets out a harmonic theory that differs significantly from the classical theory of [[Jean-Philippe Rameau|Rameau]], no longer outlawing certain chords as "[[Consonance and dissonance|dissonant]]".{{refn|In particular, [[Seventh chord|seventh]] and [[ninth]] chords were no longer considered dissonant, and the [[mediant]] could be altered without changing the [[Musical mode|mode]].<ref name=grove/>|group= n}} By using unresolved mild discords and colouristic effects, Fauré anticipated the techniques of [[Impressionist music|Impressionist]] composers.<ref name=baker/>

In contrast with his harmonic and melodic style, which pushed the bounds for his time, Fauré's rhythmic motives tended to be subtle and repetitive, with little to break the flow of the line, although he used discreet syncopations, similar to those found in [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]'s works.<ref name=grove/> Copland referred to him as "the Brahms of France".<ref name=copland/> The music critic Jerry Dubins suggests that Fauré "represents the link between the late German Romanticism of Brahms&nbsp;... and the French Impressionism of Debussy."<ref>Dubins, Jerry. "Review", ''Fanfare'', May 2006, pp. 245–246</ref>

To Sackville-West and Shawe-Taylor, Fauré's later works do not display the easy charm of his earlier music: "the luscious romantic harmony which had always been firmly supported by a single [[tonality]], later gave way to a severely monochrome style, full of [[enharmonic]] shifts, and creating the impression of [[polytonality|several tonal centres]] simultaneously employed."<ref>Sackville-West, p. 264</ref>

===Vocal music===
Fauré is regarded as one of the masters of the French art song, or ''[[mélodie]]''.<ref name=grove/> Ravel wrote in 1922 that Fauré had saved French music from the dominance of the German ''[[Lied]]''.<ref>Ravel, p. 23</ref> Two years later the critic [[Samuel Langford]] wrote of Fauré, "More surely almost than any writer in the world he commanded the faculty to create a song all of a piece, and with a sustained intensity of mood which made it like a single thought".<ref name=mgobit>"Gabriel Fauré", ''[[The Manchester Guardian]]'', 5 November 1924, p. 16</ref> In a 2011 article the pianist and writer [[Roy Howat]] and the musicologist Emily Kilpatrick wrote:
{{blockquote|His devotion to the ''mélodie'' spans his career, from the ever-fresh "Le papillon et la fleur" of 1861 to the masterly cycle ''[[L'horizon chimérique]]'', composed sixty years and more than a hundred songs later. Fauré's songs are now core repertoire for students and professionals, sung in conservatories and recital halls throughout the world.<ref>Howat, Roy and Emily Kilpatrick. "Editorial Challenges in the Early Songs of Gabriel Fauré", ''Notes&nbsp;– Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association'', December 2011, pp. 239–283</ref>|}}

In Copland's view, the early songs, written in the 1860s and 1870s under the influence of [[Charles Gounod|Gounod]], except for isolated songs such as "[[Après un rêve]]" or "Au bord de l'eau", show little sign of the artist to come. With the second volume of the sixty collected songs written during the next two decades, Copland judged, came the first mature examples of "the real Fauré". He instanced "Les berceaux", "Les roses d'Ispahan" and especially "[[Clair de lune (Fauré)|Clair de lune]]" as "so beautiful, so perfect, that they have even penetrated to America", and drew attention to less well known mélodies such as "Le secret", "Nocturne", and "Les présents".<ref name=copland/> Fauré also composed a number of [[song cycle]]s. ''[[Cinq mélodies "de Venise"]]'', Op. 58 (1891), was described by Fauré as a novel kind of song [[suite (music)|suite]], in its use of [[theme (music)|musical themes]] recurring over the cycle. For the later cycle ''[[La bonne chanson (Fauré)|La bonne chanson]]'', Op. 61 (1894), there were five such themes, according to Fauré.<ref>Orledge, pp. 78–81</ref> He also wrote that ''La bonne chanson'' was his most spontaneous composition, with Emma Bardac singing back to him each day's newly written material.<ref name="Orledge, p. 15"/> Among later works were cycles drawn from the poems of [[Charles van Lerberghe]], ''[[La chanson d'Ève]]'' (1910) and ''[[Le jardin clos]]'' (1914).<ref>Johnson, p. 329</ref> 
{{listen
 | filename = CantiqueDeJeanRacine.ogg
 | title = Cantique de Jean Racine
 | description = A shorter choral work by Fauré
 | format = [[Ogg]]
}}
The [[Requiem (Fauré)|Requiem]], Op. 48, first performed in 1888, was not composed to the memory of a specific person but, in Fauré's words, "for the pleasure of it." It has been described as "a lullaby of death" because of its predominantly gentle tone.<ref>[[Anthony Payne|Payne, Anthony]], "[https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/sweet-lullaby-of-death-1265213.html Sweet lullaby of death"], ''[[The Independent]]'', 5 April 1997</ref> Fauré omitted the [[Dies irae]], though reference to the day of judgment appears in the [[Requiem#Libera Me|Libera me]], which, like [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]], he added to the normal liturgical text.<ref>Rosen, pp. 60–74</ref> Fauré revised the Requiem over the years, and a number of different performing versions are now in use, from the earliest, for small forces, to the final revision with full orchestra.<ref>Orledge, Robert [https://www.jstor.org/stable/963753 "Fauré Revised"], ''The Musical Times'', May 1980, p. 327 {{subscription}}</ref>

Fauré's operas have not found a place in the regular repertoire. ''Prométhée'' is the more neglected of the two, with only a handful of performances in more than a century.<ref>Duchen, p. 197</ref> Copland considered ''[[Pénélope]]'' (1913) a fascinating work, and one of the best operas written since Wagner; he noted, however, that the music is, as a whole, "distinctly non-theatrical."<ref name=copland/> The work uses [[leitmotif]]s, and the two main roles call for voices of heroic quality, but these are the only ways in which the work is Wagnerian. In Fauré's late style, "tonality is stretched hard, without breaking."<ref>Murray, p. 120</ref> On the rare occasions when the piece has been staged, critical opinion has generally praised the musical quality of the score, but has varied as to the dramatic effectiveness of the work. When the opera was first presented in London in 1970, in a student production by the [[Royal Academy of Music]], [[Peter Heyworth]] wrote, "A score that offers rich rewards to an attentive ear can none the less fail to cut much ice in the theatre.&nbsp;... Most of the music is too recessive to be theatrically effective."<ref>Heyworth, Peter. "Neglected Penelope", ''[[The Observer]]'', 29 November 1970, p. 78</ref> However, after a 2006 production at the [[Wexford Festival]], Ian Fox wrote, "Fauré's ''Pénélope'' is a true rarity, and, although some lovely music was anticipated, it was a surprise how sure the composer's theatrical touch was."<ref>Fox, Ian. "Opera in Review", Opera Canada, January 2006, pp. 45–47</ref>

===Piano works===
{{Main|Piano music of Gabriel Fauré}}
Fauré's major sets of piano works are thirteen [[nocturne]]s, thirteen [[barcarolle]]s, six [[impromptu]]s, and four valses-caprices. These sets were composed across the decades of his career, and display the change in his style from uncomplicated youthful charm to a final enigmatic, but sometimes fiery introspection, by way of a turbulent period in his middle years.<ref name=copland/> His other notable piano pieces, including shorter works, or collections composed or published as a set, are ''Romances sans paroles'', [[Ballade (classical music)|Ballade]] in F{{music|sharp}} major, [[Mazurka]] in B{{music|flat}} major, ''Thème et variations'' in C{{music|sharp}} minor, and ''Huit pièces brèves''. For [[piano four hands|piano duet]], Fauré composed the ''[[Dolly (Fauré)|Dolly Suite]]'' and, together with his friend and former pupil [[André Messager]], an exuberant parody of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] in the short suite ''Souvenirs de Bayreuth''.<ref>Duchen, pp. 222–224</ref>

The piano works often use [[Arpeggio|arpeggiated]] figures, with the melody interspersed between the two hands, and include finger substitutions natural for organists. These aspects make them daunting for some pianists. Even a virtuoso like Liszt said that he found Fauré's music hard to play.<ref name="Jones, p. 51"/>{{refn|Fauré visited Liszt in Zürich in July 1882. The elder composer played one of his own compositions and then began Fauré's [[Ballade (classical music)|Ballade]] in F{{music|sharp}} major. After a few bars he said, "I've run out of fingers", and asked Fauré to play the rest of the piece to him. Nectoux and Duchen speculate that Liszt may have had difficulty in reading the manuscript or wanted to hear how Fauré himself would play.;<ref>Nectoux (1991), p.51; and Duchen, p. 61</ref> Jones and Morrison simply state that Liszt found the music "too difficult".<ref>Jones, p. 51; and Morrison, p. 11</ref>|group= n}}  The early piano works are clearly influenced by Chopin.<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 49</ref> An even greater influence was [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], whose piano music Fauré loved more than any other.<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 43</ref> In Copland's view, it was with the sixth Nocturne that Fauré fully emerged from any predecessor's shadow.<ref name=copland/> The pianist [[Alfred Cortot]] said, "There are few pages in all music comparable to these."<ref name=copland/> The critic Bryce Morrison has noted that pianists frequently prefer to play the charming earlier piano works, such as the Impromptu No. 2, rather than the later piano works, which express "such private passion and isolation, such alternating anger and resignation" that listeners are left uneasy.<ref>Morrison, p. 7</ref> In his piano music, as in most of his works, Fauré shunned virtuosity in favour of the classical lucidity often associated with the French.<ref name=baker/> He was unimpressed by purely virtuoso pianists, saying, "the greater they are, the worse they play me."<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 379</ref>

===Orchestral and chamber works===
Fauré was not greatly interested in orchestration, and on occasion asked his former students such as [[Jean Roger-Ducasse]] and [[Charles Koechlin]] to orchestrate his concert and theatre works. In Nectoux's words, Fauré's generally sober orchestral style reflects "a definite aesthetic attitude&nbsp;... The idea of timbre was not a determining one in Fauré's musical thinking".<ref name=nectoux259>Nectoux (1991), p. 259</ref> He was not attracted by flamboyant combinations of tone-colours, which he thought either self-indulgent or a disguise for lack of real musical invention.<ref name=grove/> He told his students that it should be possible to produce an orchestration without resorting to [[glockenspiel]]s, [[celesta]]s, [[xylophone]]s, bells or electrical instruments.<ref name=d132>Duchen, p. 132</ref> Debussy admired the spareness of Fauré's orchestration, finding in it the transparency he strove for in his own 1913 ballet ''[[Jeux]]''; [[Francis Poulenc|Poulenc]], by contrast, described Fauré's orchestration as "a leaden overcoat&nbsp;... instrumental mud".<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 258</ref> Fauré's best-known orchestral works are the suites ''[[Masques et bergamasques (Fauré)|Masques et bergamasques]]'' (based on music for a dramatic entertainment, or ''divertissement comique''), which he orchestrated himself,<ref>Duchen, p. 196</ref> ''[[Dolly (Fauré)|Dolly]]'', orchestrated by [[Henri Rabaud]],<ref>Duchen, p. 226</ref> and ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (Fauré)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' which draws on incidental music for [[Maurice Maeterlinck|Maeterlinck]]'s play; the stage version was orchestrated by Koechlin, but Fauré himself reworked the orchestration for the published suite.<ref name=d132/>
{{listen
 | filename = faurepiece.ogg
 | title = Pièce for Oboe and Harp
 | description = Arranged for bassoon and piano, performed by Kathleen Walsh (bassoon) and Amy Crane (piano)
 | format = [[Ogg]]
| filename2 = Faure - Elegie.ogg
 | title2 = Élégie
 | description2 = Performed by Hans Goldstein (cello) and Eli Kalman (piano)
 | format2 = [[ogg]]
 | filename3 = Faure - Fantasie.ogg
 | title3 = Fantaisie
 | description3 = Performed by Alex Murray (flute) and [[Martha Goldstein]] (piano)
 | format3 = [[ogg]]
}}
In the [[chamber music|chamber]] repertoire, his two piano quartets, in [[Piano Quartet No. 1 (Fauré)|C minor]] and [[Piano Quartet No. 2 (Fauré)|G minor]], particularly the former, are among Fauré's better-known works.<ref name=sackville265>Sackville-West, p. 265</ref> His other chamber music includes two [[piano quintet]]s, two [[cello sonata]]s, two [[violin sonata]]s, a [[piano trio]] and a [[String Quartet (Fauré)|string quartet]]. Copland (writing in 1924 before the string quartet was finished) held the [[Piano Quintet No. 2 (Fauré)|second quintet (in C minor, Opus 115)]] to be Fauré's masterpiece: "...&nbsp;a pure well of spirituality&nbsp;... extremely classic, as far removed as possible from the romantic temperament."<ref name=copland/> Other critics have differed somewhat: ''The Record Guide'' commented, "The ceaseless flow and restricted colour scheme of Fauré's last manner, as exemplified in this Quintet, need very careful management, if they are not to become tedious."<ref name=sackville265/> Fauré's last work, the [[String Quartet (Fauré)|String Quartet]], has been described by critics in ''[[Gramophone (magazine)|Gramophone]]'' magazine as an intimate meditation on the last things,<ref>Nichols, Roger. "Fauré and Ravel", ''[[Gramophone (magazine)|Gramophone]]'', August 2000, p. 69</ref> and "an extraordinary work by any standards, ethereal and other-worldly with themes that seem constantly to be drawn skywards."<ref>Cowan, Rob. "Debussy, Fauré, Ravel", ''Gramophone'', December 2008, p. 97</ref>

===Recordings===
Fauré made piano rolls of his music for several companies between 1905 and 1913.{{refn|The rolls of the "Romance sans paroles" No. 3, Barcarolle No. 1, Prelude No. 3, Pavane, Nocturne No. 3, ''Sicilienne'', Thème et variations and Valses-caprices Nos. 1, 3 and 4 survive, and several rolls have been re-recorded on disc.<ref>Nectoux (1991), p. 45</ref>|group= n}} Well over a hundred recordings of Fauré's music were made between 1898 and 1905, mostly of songs, with a few short chamber works, by performers including the singers [[Jean Noté]] and [[Pol Plançon]] and players such as [[Jacques Thibaud]] and [[Alfred Cortot]].<ref>[http://www.charm.rhul.ac.uk/discography/search/page(3);jsessionid=27803555EFC93E15A626A15C419F9F75.balancer5# Centre for the History and Analysis of Recorded Music], accessed 3 May 2012</ref> By the 1920s a range of Fauré's more popular songs were on record, including "Après un rêve" sung by Olga Haley,<ref>"Vocalion", ''The Gramophone'', April 1925, p. 63</ref> and "Automne" and "Clair de lune" sung by [[Ninon Vallin]].<ref>"Ninon Vallin", ''The Gramophone'', November 1929, p. 19</ref> In the 1930s better-known performers recorded Fauré pieces, including [[Georges Thill]] ("En prière"),<ref>"Georges Thill", ''The Gramophone'', December 1937, p. 18</ref> and [[Jacques Thibaud]] and [[Alfred Cortot]] (Violin Sonata No. 1 and Berceuse).<ref>"Review", ''The Gramophone'', July 1932, p. 11; and "Chamber Music", ''The Gramophone'', December 1932, p. 19</ref> The Sicilienne from ''Pelléas et Mélisande'' was recorded in 1938.<ref>Anderson, W R. "Second Reviews", ''The Gramophone'', July 1938, p. 24</ref>

By the 1940s there were a few more Fauré works in the catalogues. A survey by [[John Culshaw]] in December 1945 singled out recordings of piano works played by [[Kathleen Long]] (including the Nocturne No. 6, Barcarolle No. 2, the Thème et Variations, Op. 73, and the Ballade Op. 19 in its orchestral version conducted by [[Boyd Neel]]), the Requiem conducted by [[Ernest Bourmauck]], and seven songs sung by [[Maggie Teyte]].<ref>Culshaw, John. "The Return of Fauré", ''The Gramophone'', December 1945, p. 15</ref> Fauré's music began to appear more frequently in the record companies' releases in the 1950s. ''[[The Record Guide]]'', 1955, listed the Piano Quartet No. 1, Piano Quintet No. 2, the String Quartet, both Violin Sonatas, the Cello Sonata No. 2, two new recordings of the Requiem, and the complete song cycles ''La bonne chanson'' and ''La chanson d'Ève''.<ref>Sackville-West, pp. 265–268</ref>

In the LP and particularly the CD era, the record companies have built up a substantial catalogue of Fauré's music, performed by French and non-French musicians. Several modern recordings of Fauré's music have come to public notice as prize-winners in annual awards organised by ''[[Gramophone (magazine)|Gramophone]]'' and the [[BBC]].{{refn|Among these are, from ''Gramophone'': Gerard Souzay&nbsp;– Best Historical Vocal, 1991; Piano Quartets, Domus&nbsp;– Chamber, 1986; Piano Quintets, Domus&nbsp;– Chamber, 1995; String Quartet (+ Debussy, Ravel), Quatuor Ebène&nbsp;– Recording of the Year, 2009; Nocturnes, Germaine Thyssens-Valentin&nbsp;– Historic Reissue, 2002]; [[Gramophone Award#1985|Requiem, Rutter et al&nbsp;– Choral, 1985]]. Among ''BBC Awards:'' [http://www.prestoclassical.co.uk/r/Hyperion/CDA67664 String Quartet (+ Franck), Dante Quartet&nbsp;– Chamber, 2009].|group= n}} Sets of his major orchestral works have been recorded under conductors including [[Michel Plasson]] (1981)<ref>EMI Records, catalogue number 5 86564-2</ref> and [[Yan Pascal Tortelier]] (1996).<ref>Chandos Records, catalogue number Chan 9412</ref> Fauré's main chamber works have all been recorded, with players including the <!--no dates for these next as released ad hoc over the 60s to 00s--> [[Ysaÿe Quartet (1984)|Ysaÿe Quartet]], [[Domus]], [[Paul Tortelier]], [[Arthur Grumiaux]], and [[Joshua Bell]].<ref>March, pp. 450–453</ref> The complete solo piano works have been recorded by [[Kathryn Stott]] (1995),<ref>Hyperion Records, catalogue number DA 66911/4</ref> [[Paul Crossley (musician)|Paul Crossley]] (1984–85)<ref>CRD Records, catalogue number 5006</ref> and [[Lucas Debargue]] (2021-2022)<ref>Sony Classical, catalogue number G010005158780N</ref> with substantial sets of the major piano works from [[Germaine Thyssens-Valentin]],<ref>EMI Records, digital remastering from 1956 to 1965) @ Testament 2002, issued under license from EMI Records Ltd.,</ref>  [[Jean-Philippe Collard]] (1982–84),<ref>EMI Records, catalogue number 5 85261-2</ref> [[Pascal Rogé]] (1990),<ref>Decca Records, catalogue number 425 606–40</ref> and [[Kun-Woo Paik]] (2002).<ref>Decca Records, catalogue number 470 246–2</ref> Fauré's songs have all been recorded for CD, including a complete set (2005), anchored by the accompanist [[Graham Johnson (musician)|Graham Johnson]], with soloists [[Jean-Paul Fouchécourt]], [[Felicity Lott]], [[John Mark Ainsley]] and [[Jennifer Smith (soprano)|Jennifer Smith]], among others.<ref>Hyperion Records, catalogue numbers CDA67333-CDA67336</ref> The Requiem and the shorter choral works are also well represented on disc.<ref>March, pp. 455–456</ref> ''[[Pénélope]]'' has been recorded twice, with casts headed by [[Régine Crespin]] in 1956, and [[Jessye Norman]] in 1981, conducted respectively by [[Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht]] and [[Charles Dutoit]].<ref>Discoreale Records, catalogue number DR 10012-4; and Erato Records, catalogue number STU71386</ref> ''Prométhée'' has not been recorded in full, but extensive excerpts were recorded under [[Roger Norrington]] (1980).<ref>Aristocrat Records, catalogue number 7466 lE5531</ref>

===Modern assessment===
A 2001 article on Fauré in ''[[Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians]]'' concludes thus:
{{blockquote| Fauré's stature as a composer is undiminished by the passage of time. He developed a musical idiom all his own; by subtle application of old modes, he evoked the aura of eternally fresh art; by using unresolved mild discords and special coloristic effects, he anticipated procedures of Impressionism; in his piano works, he shunned virtuosity in favor of the Classical lucidity of the French masters of the [[clavecin]]; the precisely articulated melodic line of his songs is in the finest tradition of French vocal music. His great Requiem and his ''Élégie'' for Cello and Piano have entered the general repertoire.<ref name=baker>Slonimsky, Nicholas. [http://bakr.alexanderstreet.com/View/665229/Highlight/faure#faure1 "Fauré, Gabriel (-Urbain)"], ''Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians'', Schirmer Reference, New York 2001, accessed 8 September 2010 {{subscription}}</ref>}}

Fauré's biographer Nectoux writes in the ''[[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'' that Fauré is widely regarded as the greatest master of French song, and that alongside the ''mélodies'', the chamber works rank as "Fauré's most important contribution to music".<ref name=grove/> The critic [[Robert Orledge]] writes, "His genius was one of synthesis: he reconciled such opposing elements as [[mode (music)|modality]] and tonality, anguish and serenity, seduction and force within a single non-eclectic style, as in the ''Pelléas et Mélisande'' suite, his symphonic masterpiece. The quality of constant renewal within an apparently limited range&nbsp;... is a remarkable facet of his genius, and the spare, elliptical style of his single String Quartet suggests that his intensely self-disciplined style was still developing at the time of his death".<ref>Orledge, Robert. [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e2442 "Fauré, Gabriel (Urbain)"], ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', Oxford Music Online, accessed 26 September 2010 {{subscription}}</ref>