Editing Fridtjof Nansen (section)

== ''Fram'' expedition ==
{{main|Nansen's Fram expedition}}

=== Planning ===
[[File:No-nb bldsa 1a012 (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of a stern and determined looking man with arms crossed.|Nansen in 1889]]
Nansen first began to consider the possibility of reaching the North Pole after reading meteorologist [[Henrik Mohn]]'s theory on [[transpolar drift]] in 1884. Artefacts found on the coast of Greenland were identified to have come from the [[Jeannette Expedition|''Jeannette'' expedition]]. In June 1881, {{USS|Jeannette|1878|6}} was crushed and sunk off the Siberian coast—the opposite side of the Arctic Ocean. Mohn surmised the location of the artefacts indicated the existence of an ocean current from east to west, all the way across the polar sea and possibly over the pole itself.<ref name="Nansen14">Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, pp.&nbsp;14–38.</ref>

The idea remained fixated in Nansen's mind for the next couple of years.<ref name="Fleming240" /> He developed a detailed plan for a polar venture after his triumphant return from Greenland. He made his idea public in February 1890, at a meeting of the newly formed Norwegian Geographical Society. Previous expeditions, he argued, approached the North Pole from the west and failed because they were working against the prevailing east–west current; the secret was to work with the current.

A workable plan would require a sturdy and manoeuvrable small ship, capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years. This ship would enter the ice pack close to the approximate location of ''Jeannette's'' sinking, drifting west with the current towards the pole and beyond it—eventually reaching the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen.<ref name="Nansen14" />

Experienced polar explorers were dismissive: [[Adolphus Greely]] called the idea "an illogical scheme of self-destruction".<ref>Berton, p. 489.</ref> Equally dismissive were [[Allen Young|Sir Allen Young]], a veteran of the searches for [[Franklin's lost expedition]],<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, pp.&nbsp;42–45.</ref> and [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker]], who had sailed to the Antarctic on the [[Ross expedition]].<ref name="Berton492">Berton, p. 492.</ref><ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, pp.&nbsp;47–48.</ref> Nansen still managed to secure a grant from the Norwegian parliament after an impassioned speech. Additional funding was secured through a national appeal for private donations.<ref name="Fleming240">Fleming, pp. 239–240.</ref>

=== Preparations ===
Nansen chose the Norwegian naval engineer [[Colin Archer]] to design and build a ship. Archer designed an extraordinarily sturdy vessel with an intricate system of crossbeams and braces of the toughest oak timbers. Its rounded hull was designed to push the ship upwards when beset by pack ice. Speed and manoeuvrability were to be secondary to its ability as a safe and warm shelter during their predicted confinement.<ref name="Fleming240" />

The length-to-beam ratio—{{convert|39|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} and {{convert|11|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}}—gave it a stubby appearance,<ref name="Huntford192">Huntford, pp. 192–197.</ref> justified by Archer: "A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [Nansen's] object must differ essentially from any known vessel."<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;60.</ref> It was christened ''[[Fram (ship)|Fram]]'' and launched on 6 October 1892.<ref name="Huntford192" />

Nansen selected a party of twelve from thousands of applicants. [[Otto Sverdrup]], who took part in Nansen's earlier Greenland expedition was appointed as the expedition's second-in-command.<ref name="Nansen78" /> Competition was so fierce that army lieutenant and dog-driving expert [[Hjalmar Johansen]] signed on as ship's stoker, the only position still available.<ref name="Nansen78">Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, pp.&nbsp;78–81.</ref><ref name="Huntford222">Huntford, pp. 222–223.</ref>

=== Into the ice ===
[[File:Nansen Fram Map.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map of the sea and island archipelagos north of Siberia. Five colored lines indicate the ship's and Nansen's individual routes.|Expedition routes, July 1893&nbsp;– August 1896: {{legend-line|2px red solid|''Fram's'' route into the pack ice, July–September 1893}}{{legend-line|2px blue solid|''Fram's'' three-year drift to Spitsbergen}}{{legend-line|2px green solid|Nansen's marches, March 1895&nbsp;– June 1896}}{{legend-line|2px purple solid|Nansen's return to Vardø, August 1896}}{{legend-line|2px yellow solid|''Fram's'' return to Tromsø, August 1896}}]]

''[[Fram (ship)|Fram]]'' left [[Oslo|Christiania]] on 24 June 1893, cheered on by thousands of well-wishers.<ref>Huntford, pp. 206–207.</ref> After a slow journey around the coast, the final port of call was [[Vardø (town)|Vardø]], in the far north-east of Norway.<ref name="Huntford222" /> ''Fram'' left Vardø on 21&nbsp;July, following the [[North-East Passage]] route pioneered by Nordenskiöld in 1878–1879, along the northern coast of Siberia. Progress was impeded by fog and ice conditions in the mainly uncharted seas.<ref>Scott, pp. 128–135.</ref>

The crew also experienced the [[dead water]] phenomenon, where a ship's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water.<ref>Huntford, pp. 234–237.</ref> Nevertheless, [[Cape Chelyuskin]], the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass, was passed on 10&nbsp;September.

Heavy [[drift ice|pack ice]] was sighted ten days later at around latitude 78°N, as ''Fram'' approached the area in which {{USS|Jeannette|1878|6}} was crushed. Nansen followed the line of the pack northwards to a position recorded as {{coord|78|49|N|132|53|E}}, before ordering engines stopped and the rudder raised. From this point ''Fram's'' drift began.<ref>Huntford, pp. 238–240.</ref> The first weeks in the ice were frustrating, as the drift moved unpredictably; sometimes north, sometimes south.

By 19 November, ''Fram's'' latitude was south of that at which she had entered the ice.<ref>Huntford, p. 246.</ref> Only after the turn of the year, in January 1894, did the northerly direction become generally settled; the 80°N mark was finally passed on 22&nbsp;March.<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;378.</ref> Nansen calculated that, at this rate, it might take the ship five years to reach the pole.<ref name="Huntford257" /> As the ship's northerly progress continued at a rate rarely above a kilometre and a half per day, Nansen began privately to consider a new plan—a [[dog sled]]ge journey towards the pole.<ref name="Huntford257">Huntford, pp. 257–258.</ref> With this in mind, he began to practice dog-driving, making many experimental journeys over the ice.

In November, Nansen announced his plan: when the ship passed latitude 83°N, he and Hjalmar Johansen would leave the ship with the dogs and make for the pole while ''Fram'', under Sverdrup, continued its drift until it emerged from the ice in the North Atlantic. After reaching the pole, Nansen and Johansen would make for the nearest known land, the recently discovered and sketchily mapped [[Franz Josef Land]]. They would then cross to [[Svalbard|Spitzbergen]] where they would find a ship to take them home.<ref>Reynolds, pp. 105–108.</ref>

The crew spent the rest of the winter of 1894 preparing clothing and equipment for the forthcoming sledge journey. [[Kayaks]] were built, to be carried on the sledges until needed for the crossing of open water.<ref>Fleming, pp. 246–247.</ref> Preparations were interrupted early in January when violent tremors shook the ship. The crew disembarked, fearing the vessel would be crushed, but ''Fram'' proved herself equal to the danger. On 8 January 1895, the ship's position was 83°34′N, above Greely's [[Farthest North|previous record]] of 83°24′N.<ref>Huntford, pp. 275–278.</ref>{{refn|Members of Greely's 1881–1884 expedition had achieved this latitude travelling north from Greenland. Of the original party of 25, only Greely and six others survived the expedition.<ref>Fleming, pp. 232–233.</ref> | group = n }}

=== Dash for the pole ===
[[File:Nansen Johansen depart 14 March 1895.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A group of men pose on the ice with dogs and sledges, with a ship's outline visible in the background|Preparations for Nansen and [[Hjalmar Johansen|Johansen]]'s polar trek, 14 March 1895]]
With the ship's latitude at 84°4′N and after two false starts,<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;86.</ref> Nansen and Johansen began their journey on 14 March 1895.<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;112.</ref> Nansen allowed 50&nbsp;days to cover the {{convert|356|nmi|km mi|sigfig=2}} to the pole, an average daily journey of {{convert|7|nmi|km mi|sigfig=2|spell=in|0}}. After a week of travel, a [[sextant]] observation indicated they averaged {{convert|9|nmi|km mi|sigfig=2|spell=in|0}} per day, which put them ahead of schedule.<ref>Huntford, pp. 308–313.</ref> However, uneven surfaces made skiing more difficult, and their speeds slowed. They also realised they were marching against a southerly drift, and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to distance progressed.<ref name="Fleming248">Fleming, p. 248.</ref>

On 3 April, Nansen began to doubt whether the pole was attainable. Unless their speed improved, their food would not last them to the pole and back to [[Franz Josef Land]].<ref name="Fleming248" /> He confided in his diary: "I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time."<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;127.</ref> Four days later, after making camp, he observed the way ahead was "...&nbsp;a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon." Nansen recorded their latitude as 86°13′6″N—almost three degrees beyond the previous record—and decided to turn around and head back south.<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;142.</ref>

=== Retreat ===
At first Nansen and Johansen made good progress south, but suffered a serious setback on 13 April, when in his eagerness to break camp, they had forgotten to wind their [[Marine chronometer|chronometer]]s, which made it impossible to calculate their longitude and accurately navigate to Franz Josef Land. They restarted the watches based on Nansen's guess they were at 86°E. From then on they were uncertain of their true position.<ref>Fleming, p. 249.</ref> The tracks of an [[Arctic fox]] were observed towards the end of April. It was the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since they left ''Fram''.<ref>Huntford, pp. 334–336.</ref> They soon saw bear tracks and by the end of May saw evidence of nearby seals, gulls and whales.

[[File:WinterHutFJL.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|alt=Artist's impression: A full moon in a dark sky; on the ground a mound of snow with a small square opening indicates the hut, with an upturned sledge standing outside. The surrounding area is all desolate snow and ice fields.|Nansen and Johansen's winter hut of 1895 on [[Franz Josef Land]]]]
On 31 May, Nansen calculated they were only {{convert|50|nmi|km mi}} from [[Cape Fligely]], Franz Josef Land's northernmost point.<ref>Huntford, pp. 343–346.</ref> Travel conditions worsened as increasingly warmer weather caused the ice to break up. On 22 June, the pair decided to rest on a stable [[Drift ice|ice floe]] while they repaired their equipment and gathered strength for the next stage of their journey. They remained on the floe for a month.<ref>Huntford, pp. 346–351.</ref>

The day after leaving this camp, Nansen recorded: "At last the marvel has come to pass—land, land, and after we had almost given up our belief in it!"<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;276</ref> Whether this still-distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know—they had only a rough sketch map to guide them.{{refn|group=n|The Franz Josef archipelago had been discovered in 1873 by [[Julius Payer]], and was only partially explored and mapped at this stage.<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;518.</ref>}} The edge of the pack ice was reached on 6 August and they shot the last of their dogs—the weakest of which they killed regularly to feed the others since 24&nbsp;April. The two kayaks were lashed together, a sail was raised, and they made for the land.<ref>Huntford, pp. 365–368.</ref>

It soon became clear this land was part of an archipelago. As they moved southwards, Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder on the western edge of Franz Josef Land. Towards the end of August, as the weather grew colder and travel became increasingly difficult, Nansen decided to camp for the winter.<ref>Huntford, pp. 375–379.</ref> In a sheltered cove, with stones and moss for building materials, the pair erected a hut which was to be their home for the next eight months.<ref>Huntford, pp. 378–383.</ref> With ready supplies of bear, walrus and seal to keep their larder stocked, their principal enemy was not hunger but inactivity.<ref>Fleming, p. 259.</ref> After muted Christmas and New Year celebrations, in slowly improving weather, they began to prepare to leave their refuge, but it was 19 May 1896 before they were able to resume their journey.<ref>Huntford, pp. 403–404.</ref>

=== Rescue and return ===
On 17 June, during a stop for repairs after the kayaks had been attacked by a [[walrus]], Nansen thought he heard a dog barking as well as human voices. He went to investigate, and a few minutes later saw the figure of a man approaching.<ref name="Fleming261">Fleming, pp. 261–262.</ref> It was the British explorer [[Frederick George Jackson|Frederick Jackson]], who was leading an expedition to Franz Josef Land and was camped at [[Cape Flora]] on nearby [[Northbrook Island]]. The two were equally astonished by their encounter; after some awkward hesitation Jackson asked: "You are Nansen, aren't you?", and received the reply "Yes, I am Nansen."<ref>Jackson, pp. 165–166.</ref>

Johansen was picked up and the pair were taken to Cape Flora where, during the following weeks, they recuperated from their ordeal. Nansen later wrote that he could "still scarcely grasp" their sudden change of fortune;<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, p.&nbsp;456.</ref> had it not been for the walrus attack that caused the delay, the two parties might have been unaware of each other's existence.<ref name="Fleming261" />

[[File:CapeFloraMeeting.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Two men shake hands in the midst of a snowfield, with a dog sitting nearby. Dark hills are shown in the background.|Staged photo of the Nansen–Jackson meeting near [[Northbrook Island|Cape Flora]], 17 June 1896]]
On 7 August, Nansen and Johansen boarded Jackson's supply ship ''Windward'', and sailed for Vardø where they arrived on the 13th. They were greeted by Hans Mohn, the originator of the polar drift theory, who was in the town by chance.<ref>Nansen 1897, vol.&nbsp;II, pp.&nbsp;506–507.</ref> The world was quickly informed by telegram of Nansen's safe return,<ref>Huntford, pp. 433–434</ref> but as yet there was no news of ''Fram''.

Taking the weekly mail steamer south, Nansen and Johansen reached [[Hammerfest]] on 18 August, where they learned that ''Fram'' had been sighted. She had emerged from the ice north and west of Spitsbergen, as Nansen had predicted, and was now on her way to Tromsø. She had not passed over the pole, nor exceeded Nansen's northern mark.<ref>Huntford, pp. 435–436.</ref> Without delay Nansen and Johansen sailed for Tromsø, where they were reunited with their comrades.<ref name="Fleming264">Fleming, pp. 264–265.</ref>

The homeward voyage to Christiania was a series of triumphant receptions at every port. On 9 September, ''Fram'' was escorted into Christiania's harbour and welcomed by the largest crowds the city had ever seen.<ref>Huntford, p. 438.</ref> The crew were received by King Oscar, and Nansen, reunited with family, remained at the palace for several days as special guests. Tributes arrived from all over the world; typical was that from the British mountaineer [[Edward Whymper]], who wrote that Nansen had made "almost as great an advance as has been accomplished by all other voyages in the nineteenth century put together".<ref name="Fleming264" />