Editing First Council of Nicaea (section)

== Outcomes ==
=== Nicene Creed ===
{{Main|Nicene Creed}}[[File:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|upright|Icon depicting [[Constantine I|the Emperor Constantine]] and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the [[Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed|Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]]]]

The council formulated a creed, a declaration and summary of the Christian faith. Several creeds were already in existence; many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council, including Arius. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism. In Rome, for example, the [[Apostles' Creed]] was popular, especially for use in [[Lent]] and the Easter season. In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.

The original Nicene Creed read as follows:

{{poemquote|We believe in one God, the Father almighty,
maker of all things visible and invisible;
And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
begotten from the Father, only-begotten,
that is, from the substance of the Father,
God from God, light from light,
true God from true God, begotten not made,
of one substance with the Father,
through Whom all things came into being,
things in heaven and things on earth,
Who because of us men and because of our salvation came down,
and became incarnate and became man, and suffered,
and rose again on the third day, and ascended to the heavens,
and will come to judge the living and dead,
And in the Holy Spirit.
But as for those who say, There was when He was not,
and, Before being born He was not,
and that He came into existence out of nothing,
or who assert that the Son of God is of a different hypostasis or substance,
or created, or is subject to alteration or change
– these the Catholic and apostolic Church anathematizes.<ref name="creed">{{Cite web|url=https://earlychurchtexts.com/public/creed_of_nicaea_325.htm|title=Creed of Nicaea 325 – Greek and Latin Text with English translation|website=earlychurchtexts.com}}</ref>}}The creed was amended by the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in 381.

==== Distinctive elements ====
Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added, some specifically to counter the Arian point of view.<ref name="kelly1978">{{harvnb|Kelly|1978|loc=Chapter 9}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Loyn|1991|p=240}}</ref>

# Jesus Christ is described as "Light from Light, true God from true God", proclaiming his divinity.
# Jesus Christ is said to be "begotten, not made", asserting that he was not a mere creature, brought into being out of nothing, but the true Son of God, brought into being "from the substance of the Father".
# He is said to be "of one substance with the Father", proclaiming that although Jesus Christ is "true God" and God the Father is also "true God", they are "of one substance". The Greek term ''homoousios'', [[Consubstantiality|consubstantial]] (i.e. of the ''same'' substance) is ascribed by Eusebius of Caesarea to Constantine who, on this particular point, may have chosen to exercise his authority. The significance of this clause, however, is ambiguous as to the extent in which Jesus Christ and God the Father are "of one substance", and the issues it raised would be seriously controverted in the future.

==== Anathemas ====
At the end of the creed came a list of [[Anathema#Early Church|anathemas]], designed to repudiate explicitly the Arians' stated claims.

# The view that "there was once when he was not" was rejected to maintain the coeternity of the Son with the Father.
# The view that he was "mutable or subject to change" was rejected to maintain that the Son just like the Father was beyond any form of weakness or corruptibility, and most importantly that he could not fall away from absolute moral perfection.

Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the Arians and their opponents, the Council promulgated one which was clearly opposed to Arianism and incompatible with the distinctive core of their beliefs. The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius' works, and elsewhere. The [[Homoousian]]s (from the [[Koine Greek]] word translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the [[Synods of Antioch#The Synods of Antioch in 264-269|Council of Antioch]] in 264–268) were supported by Constantine and Hosius and were able to advance the use of the term, thus the creed was accepted by the council.<ref>{{citation |pages=61–62 |last=Davis |first=Leo D. |title=The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology |date=2017-03-15 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-8381-1 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Exiled ====
The emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refused to endorse the creed would be [[exile]]d. Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed and were thus exiled to [[Illyria]], in addition to being [[excommunication|excommunicated]]. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and [[book burning|consigned to the flames]],<ref name=EB1911/> while his supporters were considered as "enemies of Christianity".{{sfn|Schaff|Schaff|1910|loc=Section 120}} Nevertheless, the controversy continued in various parts of the empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Lutz von Padberg|1998|p=26}}</ref>

=== Separation of Easter computation from Jewish calendar ===
The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish [[Passover]] and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances. As early as [[Pope Sixtus I]] in the 2nd century, some Christians had set Easter to a Sunday in the lunar month of [[Nisan]]. To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community. By the late 3rd century some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the [[Hebrew calendar|Jewish calendar]]. They argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before the [[March equinox|spring equinox]].{{Sfn|Anatolius|loc=Book 7, Chapter 33}}

Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting Easter within this independently computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox. They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact the contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox.{{Sfn|Chronicon Paschale}} Others felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view.{{Sfn|Panarion|loc=Book 3, Chapter 1, Section 10}}

The controversy between those who argued for independent computations and those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar was formally resolved by the council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria. Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria—in effect, a Christian Nisan—not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called "protopaschites" by later historians) were urged to come around to the majority position. That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons,{{Sfn|Chrysostom|p=47}} canons,{{Sfn|SEC|p=594}} and tracts{{Sfn|Panarion|loc=Book 3, Chapter 1}} written against the protopaschite practice in the late 4th century.

These two rules—independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity—were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and [[Easter controversy|generated numerous controversies]], some of which remain unresolved. In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday.{{Sfn|Sozomen|loc=Book 7, Chapter 18}} This was unnecessary as it resolved against the ''Quartodecimani'', who celebrated on any day of the week, in favour of the Churches who postponed the celebration to the following Sunday. See the extract from the ''Letter of the Council of Nicaea to the Egyptian Church'', cited above.

Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 15 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called "Passover") in the Hebrew calendar. The Finnish Orthodox Church explains, "According to the definition of the Council of Nicaea in 325, Pascha is celebrated on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox, but always after the Jewish Passover. The date of the vernal equinox was then defined as March 21."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://orthochristian.com/157576.html|last=Finnish Orthodox Church|title=Finnish church resolves to continue using Gregorian Paschalion|date=30 November 2023|accessdate=9 March 2024}}</ref> L'Huillier notes the success of this strategy - Orthodox Easter has never preceded Passover.{{Sfn|L'Huillier|1996|p=25}}

=== Resolution of the Melitian schism ===
The suppression of the Melitian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter that came before the Council of Nicaea. Melitius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of [[Lycopolis]] in Egypt but without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the [[Christian laying on of hands|laying on of hands]], the ordinations performed by Melitius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by Melitius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander.<ref>{{harvnb|Leclercq|1911a}}</ref>

In the event of the death of a non-Melitian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant [[Episcopal see|see]] might be given to a Melitian, provided he was worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander. Melitius' episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Melitians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of Athanasius.<ref>{{citation |last=Kim |first=Young Richard |page=104 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Council of Nicaea |date=2021-01-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42774-6 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Promulgation of canon law ===
{{Main|Canon law|Collections of ancient canons|Promulgation (Catholic canon law)}}
The Council promulgated twenty new church laws, called ''[[Canon (canon law)|canons]]'' (though the exact number is subject to debate), that is, rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the works of [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]] are as follows:<ref>{{harvnb|Canons}}</ref>

# prohibition of self-[[castration]] for clergy
# establishment of a minimum term for [[catechumen]]s (persons studying for baptism)
# prohibition of a man and a woman who have both taken [[Religious vows|vows of chastity]] to live together in a chaste and non-legalized partnership (the so-called ''virgines subintroductae'', who practiced [[syneisaktism]])
# ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops<ref name=EB1911/> and confirmation by the [[metropolitan bishop]]
# provision for two provincial [[synod]]s to be held annually
# confirmation of ancient customs giving jurisdiction over large regions to the bishops of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch
# recognition of the honorary rights of the see of [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]]
# provision for agreement with the [[Novatianism|Novatianists]], an early sect
# elders who had been ordained without sufficient examination were not to be recognized
# elders who had lapsed but had not been found out were to be deposed
# mercy was enjoined toward those who had lapsed without compulsion, even though it was recognized that they did not deserve it
# those who had left the military but later sought out to be restored to their military position were to be excommunicated; depending on the sincerity of their repentance, they could be readmitted to communion earlier
# those who were fulfilling [[penance]] could receive communion if they were dying, but if they got well again, they were to finish their penance
# catechumens who lapsed were to have three years as hearers before being allowed to become catechumens again
# bishops, presbyters, and deacons were not to wander into neighboring cities to officiate
# clergy who refused to return to their home church were to be excommunicated, and the ordinations of those who were ordained by these wandering clergy were to be considered null and void
# prohibition of [[usury]] among the clergy
# precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in receiving the [[Eucharist]] (Holy Communion)
# declaration of the invalidity of [[baptism]] by [[Paul of Samosata|Paulian heretics]]
# prohibition of kneeling on Sundays and during the [[Pentecost]] (the fifty days commencing on Easter). Standing was the normative posture for prayer at this time, as it still is among the Eastern Christians. Kneeling was considered most appropriate to penitential prayer, as distinct from the festive nature of Eastertide and its remembrance every Sunday. The canon was designed only to ensure uniformity of practice at the designated times.