Editing Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (section)

==Holy Roman Emperor (1556–1564)==
[[File:Ferdinand I by Martin Rota.jpg|thumb|left|Posthumous engraving of Ferdinand by [[Martin Rota]], 1575]]
Charles abdicated as emperor in August 1556 in favor of his brother Ferdinand. Given the settlement of 1521 and the election of 1531, Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor and ''[[suo jure]]'' Archduke of Austria. Due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] did not accept the Imperial succession until 3 May 1558. The Pope refused to recognize Ferdinand as emperor until 1559, when [[Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)|peace was reached]] between [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the Habsburgs. During his reign, the [[Council of Trent]] came to an end. Ferdinand organized an [[1562 imperial election|Imperial election in 1562]] in order to secure the succession of his son Maximilian II. [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] ambassadors to Ferdinand recall in their [[Relazione|Relazioni]] the emperor's pragmatism and his ability to speak multiple languages. Several issues of the Council of Trent were solved after a compromise was personally reached between Emperor Ferdinand and Morone, the [[papal legate]].

===In the Empire===
An important invention of Ferdinand was the ''[[Hofkriegsrat]]'' (Aulic War Council), officially established in 1556 to coordinate military affairs in all Habsburg lands (inside and outside the Holy Roman Empire).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mugnai |first1=Bruno |last2=Flaherty |first2=Chris |title=Der lange Türkenkrieg, the long turkish war (1593–1606), vol. 2 |date= 2016 |publisher=Soldiershop Publishing |isbn=978-88-9327-162-2 |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4yWDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT36 |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Together with the {{ill|Reichshofkanzlei|de}} (established in 1559, merging the Imperial and Austrian Chancelleries, thus also dealing with affairs of both Imperial and Habsburg lands) and the {{ill|Hofkammer|de|Hofkammer (Habsburgermonarchie)}} (the Finance Chamber, which received imperial taxes from the ''Reichspfennig meister''), it formed the core of the Habsburg government in Vienna. The ''[[Reichshofrat]]'' was revived to deal with affairs concerning imperial prerogatives. In 1556, an ordinance was issued to ensure Imperial and dynastic affairs were managed separately (by two groups of officials from the same institution) though.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Munck |first1=Bert De |last2=Romano |first2=Antonella |title=Knowledge and the Early Modern City: A History of Entanglements |date= 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-80843-2 |page=361 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT361 |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter H. |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Thousand Years of Europe's History |date= 2016 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0-14-195691-6 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5lFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR214 |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In his time, the influence of the Estates in these institutions were limited. For each ''Länder''[[Imperial Circle|group]], regiments (or governments) and treasury offices were created.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cassese |first1=Sabino |last2=Bogdandy |first2=Armin von |last3=Huber |first3=Peter |title=The Max Planck Handbooks in European Public Law: Volume I: The Administrative State |date= 2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-103982-9 |page=128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXAuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |access-date=21 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Unlike Maximilian I and Charles V, Ferdinand I was not a nomadic ruler. In 1533, he moved his residence to [[Vienna]] and spent most of his time there. After experiencing the Turkish siege of 1529, Ferdinand worked hard to make Vienna an impregnable fortress.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Duindam |first1=Jeroen |last2=Duindam |first2=Jeroen Frans Jozef |last3=Duindam |first3=Professor Jeroen |last4=Roper |first4=Lecturer in History Royal Holloway and Bedford New College Lyndal |title=Vienna and Versailles: The Courts of Europe's Dynastic Rivals, 1550–1780 |date= 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82262-6 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LORFDFxqCI8C&pg=PA145 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> After his 1558 accession, Vienna became the imperial capital.<ref name="Princeton University Press">{{cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe |date= 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20538-0 |page=312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXALEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA312 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

===Administration of Royal Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia===
[[File:Císař Ferdinand I. Habsburský (bez rámu).jpg|thumb|200px|Ferdinand. 16th-century Czech portrait]]

Since 1542, Charles V and Ferdinand had been able to collect the Common Penny tax, or ''Türkenhilfe'' (Turkish aid), designed to protect the empire against the Ottomans or France. But as Hungary, unlike Bohemia, was not part of the empire, the Imperial aid for Hungary depended on political factors. The obligation was only in effect if Vienna or the empire was threatened.<ref name="Princeton University Press"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Zmora |first=Hillay |title=Monarchy, Aristocracy and State in Europe 1300–1800 |date= 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-74798-6 |page=50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5OFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ninness |first=Richard J. |title=German Imperial Knights: Noble Misfits between Princely Authority and the Crown, 1479–1648 |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-28502-4 |page=106 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SBQHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=Balkan Wars: Habsburg Croatia, Ottoman Bosnia, and Venetian Dalmatia, 1499–1617 |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-1360-9 |page=163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHCPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

The western part of Hungary over which Ferdinand had dominion became known as Royal Hungary. As the ruler of Austria, Bohemia and Royal Hungary, Ferdinand adopted a policy of centralisation and, in common with other monarchs of the time, the construction of an [[absolute monarchy]]. In 1527, soon after ascending the throne, he published a constitution for his hereditary domains (''{{lang|de|Hofstaatsordnung}}'') and established Austrian-style institutions in [[Bratislava|Pressburg]] for Hungary, in [[Prague]] for Bohemia, and in [[Wrocław|Breslau]] for [[Silesia]].

Ferdinand was able to introduce more uniform governments for his realms and also strengthen his control over finance in Bohemia, which provided him with half of his revenue. The governments basically remained independent of each other though. An Austrian could make a career in Bohemian administration but usually only after naturalization, except for some royal protégés such as Florian Griespeck, while it was virtually unheard of (in contrast with the future) for a Bohemian to gain advancement in the Austrian government.{{sfn|Evans|2006|p=82}} An elected king himself, he gradually nudged the monarchy towards becoming hereditary, which would finally succeed under [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fichtner |first=Paula Sutter |title=Historical Dictionary of Austria |date= 2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6310-1 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilyK1_1f0zYC&pg=PA98 |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Coat of Arms of Ferdinand I of Austria (1503-1564) as King of Hungary and Bohemia.svg|thumb|left|180px|Coat of Arms of Ferdinand I of Austria (1503–1564) as King of Hungary and Bohemia]]
In 1547 the [[Bohemian Estates]] rebelled against Ferdinand after he had ordered the Bohemian army to move against the German [[Protestants]]. After suppressing the revolt, he retaliated by limiting the privileges of Bohemian cities and inserting a new bureaucracy of royal officials to control urban authorities.
Ferdinand was a supporter of the [[Counter-Reformation]] and helped lead the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] response against what he saw as the heretical tide of Protestantism. For example, in 1551 he invited the [[Jesuits]] to Vienna and in 1556 to Prague. Finally, in 1561 Ferdinand revived the [[Archdiocese of Prague]], which had been previously liquidated due to the success of the Protestants.

After the Ottoman invasion of Hungary the traditional Hungarian coronation city [[Székesfehérvár]] came under Ottoman occupation. Thus, in 1536 the Hungarian Diet decided that a new place for coronation of the king as well as a meeting place for the Diet itself would be set in [[Bratislava|Pressburg]]. Ferdinand proposed that the Hungarian and Bohemian diets should convene and hold debates together with the Austrian estates, but all parties refused such an innovation.

In Hungary, the monarchy remained elective until 1627 (with Habsburgs' female inheritance rights being acknowledged in 1723), although the kings that followed Ferdinand would always be Habsburgs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szente |first=Zoltán |title=Constitutional Law in Hungary |date= 2021 |publisher=Kluwer Law International B.V. |isbn=978-94-035-3304-9 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlA3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT20 |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

A rudimentary union between Austria, Hungary and Bohemia was formed though, on the basis of common legal status. Ferdinand had an interest in keeping Bohemia separate from imperial jurisdiction and making the connection between Bohemia and the empire looser (Bohemia did not have to pay taxes to the empire). As he gained the rights of an Imperial prince-elector as king of Bohemia, he was able to give Bohemia (as well as associated territories such as [[Upper Lusatia|Upper]] and [[Lower Lusatia]], [[Duchies of Silesia|Silesia]] and [[Margraviate of Moravia|Moravia]]) the same privileged status as Austria, therefore affirming his superior position in the empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |title=Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648 |date=2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-154752-2 |page=370 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Q-SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT370 |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Robert |last2=Wilson |first2=Peter |title=The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806: A European Perspective |date=2012 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-20683-0 |page=126 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSON55zorLsC&pg=PA126 |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref>