Editing Fennel (section)

== Uses ==

Fennel was prized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used it as medicine, food, and insect repellent. Fennel tea was believed to give courage to warriors before battle. According to Greek mythology, [[Prometheus]] used a giant stalk of fennel to carry fire from [[Mount Olympus]] to Earth. Emperor [[Charlemagne]] required the cultivation of fennel on all imperial farms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1267&context=extension_curall|title=Fennel in the Garden|author1=Ken Adams|author2=Dan Drost|website=Digitalcommons.usu.edu|access-date=2022-03-01|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402184253/https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1267&context=extension_curall|url-status=live}}</ref>

Florence fennel is one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of [[absinthe]], an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Europe and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fennel (Marathos)|website=Polisherbgarden.com|url=http://www.polisherbgarden.com/menu-type/fennel-marathos/|access-date=2022-02-24|language=en-US|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224063513/http://www.polisherbgarden.com/menu-type/fennel-marathos/|url-status=live}}</ref> Fennel fruit is a common and traditional spice in flavored Scandinavian [[brännvin]] (a loosely defined group of distilled spirits, which include [[akvavit]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.diffordsguide.com/beer-wine-spirits/2755/aalborg-taffel-akvavit|title=Aalborg Taffel Akvavit|website=Diffordsguide.com|access-date=8 November 2017|archive-date=8 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108205852/https://www.diffordsguide.com/beer-wine-spirits/2755/aalborg-taffel-akvavit|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/food-and-drink/drinks/aquavit-this-winters-coolest-drink/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/food-and-drink/drinks/aquavit-this-winters-coolest-drink/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Aquavit: this winter's hottest spirit  |date=8 November 2016 |access-date=8 November 2017 |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Fennel is also featured in the Chinese [[Materia medica|Materia Medica]] for its medicinal functions.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-02-26|title=Making Chinese Medicine Series 03: Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'')|url=https://purplecloudinstitute.com/making-chinese-medicine-series-03-fennel-foeniculum-vulgare/|access-date=2021-02-27|website=Purplecloudinstitute.com|language=en-AU|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308215640/https://purplecloudinstitute.com/making-chinese-medicine-series-03-fennel-foeniculum-vulgare/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2016 study found ''F. vulgare'' essential oil to have [[insecticidal]] properties.<ref name="Santos-et-al-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro-Santos |first1=Regiane |last2=Andrade |first2=Mariana |last3=Sanches-Silva |first3=Ana |last4=de Melo |first4=Nathália Ramos |date=2017 |title=Essential Oils for Food Application: Natural Substances with Established Biological Activities |journal=[[Food and Bioprocess Technology]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=43–71 |doi=10.1007/s11947-017-1948-6 |issn=1935-5130 |s2cid=103935770}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===
{{nutritional value
| name = Fennel seeds
| kJ = 1443
| water = 8.8 g
| protein = 15.8 g
| fat = 14.9 g
| satfat = 0.5 g
| monofat = 9.9 g
| polyfat = 1.7 g
| carbs = 52 g
| fiber = 40 g
| calcium_mg = 1196
| iron_mg = 18.5
| magnesium_mg = 385
| phosphorus_mg = 487
| potassium_mg = 1694
| sodium_mg = 88
| zinc_mg = 4
| manganese_mg = 6.5
| vitC_mg = 21
| thiamin_mg = 0.41
| riboflavin_mg = 0.35
| niacin_mg = 6.1
| vitB6_mg = 0.47
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171323/nutrients Link to Full USDA Database entry]
}}

A raw fennel bulb is 90% water, 1% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], 7% [[carbohydrate]]s, and contains negligible [[fat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fennel bulb, raw per 100 g |publisher=FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture |date=30 October 2020 |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169385/nutrients |access-date=10 April 2024 |archive-date=25 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025172925/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169385/nutrients |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Dried fennel seeds are typically used as a spice in minute quantities. A reference amount of {{convert|100|g}} of fennel seeds provides {{convert|345|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[B&nbsp;vitamins]] and several [[dietary minerals]], especially [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]] and [[manganese]], all of which exceed 90% DV. Fennel seeds are 52% carbohydrates (including 40% [[dietary fiber]]), 15% [[fat]], 16% protein, and 9% water.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Cookbook|Fennel}}

The bulb, foliage, and fruits of the fennel plant are used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. The small flowers of wild fennel (known as fennel "pollen")<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kandarian-organic-farms.highwire.com/product/organic-fennel-pollen |title=gourmet-organic-fennel-pollen |work=kandarian-organic-farms |access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906201935/http://kandarian-organic-farms.highwire.com/product/organic-fennel-pollen |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304692804577285582237631376 |title=Fennel Pollen: Culinary Fairy Dust |date=23 March 2012 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301190008/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304692804577285582237631376 |url-status=live }}</ref> Dried fennel fruit is an aromatic, anise-flavored [[spice]], brown or green when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the fruit ages. For cooking, green fruits are optimal.<ref name="katzer" /> The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to dill. The bulb is a crisp vegetable that can be sautéed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw. Tender young leaves are used for garnishes, as a salad, to add flavor to salads, to flavor sauces to be served with puddings, and in soups and fish sauce.<ref name="Kains">{{cite book |title=Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses |year=1912 |publisher=Orange Judd Company |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_90 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413010101/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_90 |author=M. G. Kains |editor=American Agriculturist |archive-date=13 April 2017 |url-status=dead |format=English }}</ref> Both the inflated leaf bases and the tender young [[Shoot (botany)|shoot]]s can be eaten like [[celery]].<ref name="Nyerges" />

Fennel fruits are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also a flavoring in some natural [[toothpaste]]s. The fruits are used in cookery and sweet desserts.<ref name="Kains" />

Many cultures in India, [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]], and the [[Middle East]] use fennel fruits in cooking. In Iraq, fennel seeds are used as an ingredient in [[nigella]]-flavored breads.<ref name=":0" /> It is one of the most important spices in [[Kashmiri cuisine]] and [[Gujarati cuisine|Gujarati cooking]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-fennel-seeds-saunf-sauf-410i|title=What is Fennel Seeds, Saunf? Glossary &#124; Uses, Benefits, Recipes|website=Tarladalal.com|access-date=1 March 2022|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301173004/https://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-fennel-seeds-saunf-sauf-410i|url-status=live}}</ref> In Indian cuisine, whole fennel seeds and fennel powder are used as a spice in various sweet and savory dishes. It is an essential ingredient in the [[Assamese cuisine|Assamese]]/[[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]]/[[Oriya cuisine|Oriya]] spice mixture ''[[panch phoron]]''<ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-10/recipes/31312472_1_paanch-mustard-seed-spices|archive-url= https://archive.today/20120708135525/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-10/recipes/31312472_1_paanch-mustard-seed-spices|url-status= dead|archive-date= 8 July 2012|title=The power of five seeds |author=Deepika Sahu |work= [[The Times of India]]|date=10 May 2012 }}</ref> and in Chinese [[five-spice powder]]s. In many parts of India, roasted fennel fruits are consumed as ''[[mukhwas]]'', an after-meal digestive and breath freshener (saunf), or candied as [[comfit]]. Fennel seeds are also often used as an ingredient in [[paan]], a breath freshener most popularly consumed in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lakshmi|first=Padma|title=The Encyclopedia of Spices and Herbs: An Essential Guide to the Flavors of the World|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2016|isbn=978-0-06-237523-0|page=220}}</ref> In China, fennel stem and leaves are often ingredients in the stuffings of [[jiaozi]], [[baozi]], or [[Pie|pies]], as well in cold dishes as a green vegetable. Fennel fruits are present in well-known mixed spices such as the five-spice powder or {{Interlanguage link|thirteen-spice powder|lt=thirteen-spice powder|zh|十三香}}.

Fennel leaves are used in some parts of India as leafy green vegetables either by themselves or mixed with other vegetables, cooked to be served and consumed as part of a meal. In [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], the young leaves are used to make a special kind of egg omelette (along with onions and flour) called ''{{lang|ar-Latn|[[eggah|ijjeh]]}}''.

Many [[egg (food)|egg]], [[fish (food)|fish]], and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian salads, or it can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may be [[blanching (cooking)|blanched]] or [[marinated]], or cooked in [[risotto]].

Fennel fruits are the primary flavor component in [[Italian sausage]]. In Spain, the stems of the fennel plant are used in the preparation of pickled eggplants, ''{{lang|es|berenjenas de Almagro}}''. A [[herbal tea]] or ''tisane'' can also be made from fennel.

On account of its aromatic properties, fennel fruit forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound liquorice powder. In the Indian subcontinent, fennel fruits are eaten raw, sometimes with a sweetener.

{{gallery|mode=packed
|Saunf sweets.JPG|Sugar-coated and uncoated fennel fruits used as a [[breath freshener]]
|Fennel seeds and rock sugar, Indian aftermint.jpg|Indian ''[[mukhwas]]'' (breath freshener) made of fennel seeds and rock sugar
|Fenouil cuisiné avec du cabillaud à la crème d'aneth.JPG|French cooked fennel stuffed with [[cod]] and [[dill]] cream
|Fennel pie at Huatian Eryouju, Maliandao (20220214134542).jpg|Chinese ''[[Bing (bread)|bing]]'' with fennel filling
}}