Editing Fatimid Caliphate (section)

===Rise to power===

==== Establishment of the Isma'ili State ====
Prior to the Fatimid rise to power, a large part of the Maghreb including [[Ifriqiya]] was under the control of the [[Aghlabids]], an Arab dynasty who ruled nominally on behalf the Abbasids but were ''de facto'' independent.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Glaire D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Sk_DwAAQBAJ |title=The Aghlabids and their Neighbors: Art and Material Culture in Ninth-Century North Africa |last2=Fenwick |first2=Corisande |last3=Rosser-Owen |first3=Mariam |publisher=Brill |year=2017 |isbn=978-90-04-35604-7 |editor-last=Anderson |editor-first=Glaire D. |language=en |chapter=The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors: An Introduction |editor-last2=Fenwick |editor-first2=Corisande |editor-last3=Rosser-Owen |editor-first3=Mariam}}</ref> In 893 the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i first settled among the Banu Saktan tribe (part of the larger Kutama tribe) in [[Ikjan]], near the city of [[Mila (city)|Mila]] (in northwestern Algeria today).{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=102}} However, due to hostility from the local Aghlabid authorities and other Kutuma tribes, he was forced to leave Ikjan and sought the protection of another Kutama tribe, the Banu Ghashman, in Tazrut (two miles southwest of Mila). From there, he began to build support for a new movement.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=103}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}} Shortly after, the hostile Kutama tribes and the Arab lords of the nearby cities (Mila, [[Sétif|Setif]], and [[Ksar Bellezma|Bilizma]]) allied together to march against him, but he was able to move quickly and muster enough support from friendly Kutama to defeat them one by one before they were able to unite. This first victory brought Abu Abdallah and his Kutama troops valuable loot and attracted more support to the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}}'s cause. Over the next two years Abu Abdallah was able to win over most of the Kutama tribes in the region through either persuasion or coercion.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=103}} This left much of the countryside under his control, while the major cities remained under Aghlabid control. He established an Isma'ili theocratic state based in Tazrut, operating in a way similar to previous Isma'ili missionary networks in Mesopotamia but adapted to local Kutama tribal structures. He adopted the role of a traditional Islamic ruler at the head of this organization while remaining in frequent contact with Abdallah. He continued to preach to his followers, known as the ''Awliya' Allah'' ('Friends of God'), and to initiate them into Isma'ili doctrine.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=103–06}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}}

==== Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya ====
{{See also|Al-Muqtadir}}
[[File:Fall of the Aghlabid Emirate.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of Abu Abdallah's campaigns and battles during the overthrow of the Aghlabids]]

In 902, while the Aghlabid emir [[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya|Ibrahim II]] was away on campaign in [[Sicily]], Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in [[North Africa]] by attacking and capturing the city of Mila for the first time.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=106}} This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids, who sent a punitive expedition of 12,000 men from Tunis in October of the same year. Abu Abdallah's forces were unable to resist this counterattack and after two defeats they evacuated Tazrut (which was largely unfortified) and fled to Ikjan, leaving Mila to be retaken. Ikjan became the new center of the Fatimid movement and the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} reestablished his network of missionaries and spies.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}}

Ibrahim II died in October 902 while in [[southern Italy]] and was succeeded by [[Abdallah II of Ifriqiya|Abdallah II]]. In early 903 Abdallah II set out on another expedition to destroy Ikjan and the Kutama rebels, but he ended the expedition prematurely due to troubles at home arising from disputes over his succession. On 27 July 903, he was assassinated and his son [[Ziyadat Allah III of Ifriqiya|Ziyadat Allah III]] took power in Tunis.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=107–08}} These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to capture Setif, another fortified city, by October or November 904.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=108}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=61}} In 905 the Aghlabids sent a third expedition to try and subdue the Kutama. They based themselves in [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] and in the fall of 905, after receiving further reinforcements, set out to march against Abu Abdallah. However, they were surprised by Kutama forces on the first day of their march, which caused a panic and scattered their army. The Aghlabid general fled and the Kutama captured a large booty.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=108–09}} Another Aghlabid military expedition organized the next year (906) failed when the soldiers mutinied. Around the same time or soon after, Abu Abdallah's forces besieged and captured the fortified cities of [[Tobna|Tubna]] and Bilizma. The capture of Tubna was significant as it was the first major commercial center to come under Abu Abdallah's control.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=109–11}}

[[File:Rock Crystal Ewer.jpg|thumb|upright|Fatimid ewer, 10th century CE<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rock Crystal Ewer from the Keir Collection {{!}} DMA Content Management System |url=https://cms.dma.org/art/exhibitions/rock-crystal-ewer-keir-collection |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=cms.dma.org |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020842/https://cms.dma.org/art/exhibitions/rock-crystal-ewer-keir-collection |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Meanwhile, Ziyadat Allah III moved his court from Tunis to [[Raqqada]], the palace-city near [[Kairouan]], in response to the growing threat. He fortified Raqqada in 907.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=111}} In early 907 another Aghlabid army marched eastwards again against Abu Abdallah, accompanied by Berber reinforcements from the [[Aurès Mountains]]. They were again scattered by Kutama cavalry and retreated to [[Baghai|Baghaya]], the most fortified town on the old southern Roman road between Ifriqiya and the central Maghreb. The fortress, however, fell to the Kutama without a siege when local notables arranged to have the gates opened to them in May or June 907.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=112–13}} This opened a hole in the wider defensive system of Ifriqiya and created panic in Raqqada. Ziyadat Allah III stepped up anti-Fatimid propaganda, recruited volunteers, and took measures to defend the weakly-fortified city of Kairouan.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=113–15}} He spent the winter of 907–908 with his army in [[al-Aribus]] ([[Ancient Rome|Roman]]-era Laribus, between present-day [[El Kef]] and [[Maktar]]), expecting an attack from the north. However, Abu Abdallah's forces had been unable to capture the northerly city of Constantine and therefore they instead attacked along the southern road from Baghaya in early 908 and captured [[Haïdra|Maydara]] (present-day Haïdra). An indecisive battle subsequently occurred between the Aghalabid and Kutama armies near Dar Madyan (probably a site between [[Sbeitla]] and [[Kasserine]]), with neither side gaining the upper hand.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=115–17}} During the winter of 908–909 Abu Abdallah campaigned in the region around [[Chott el Djerid|Chott el-Jerid]], capturing the towns of [[Tozeur|Tuzur (Tozeur)]], [[Nefta, Tunisia|Nafta]], and [[Gafsa|Qafsa (Gafsa)]] and taking control of the region. The Aghlabids responded by besieging Baghaya soon afterward in the same winter, but they were quickly repelled.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=117}}

On 25 February 909, Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200,000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=118}} The remaining Aghlabid army, led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al-Aghlab, met them near al-Aribus on 18 March. The battle lasted until the afternoon, when a contingent of Kutama horsemen managed to outflank the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=118}} When news of the defeat reached Raqqada, Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt. The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada and resisted Ibn Abi al-Aghlab's calls to organise a last-ditch resistance.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=119–20}} Upon hearing of the looting, Abu Abdallah sent an advance force of Kutama horsemen who secured Raqqada on 24 March. On 25 March 909 (Saturday, 1 [[Rajab]] 296), Abu Abdallah himself entered Raqqada and took up residence here.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=120–21}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

==== Establishment of the Caliphate ====
Upon assuming power in Raqqada, Abu Abdallah inherited much of the Aghlabid state's apparatus and allowed its former officials to continue working for the new regime.{{Sfn|Halm|1996|pp=121–22}} He established a new, Isma'ili Shi'a regime on behalf of his absent, and for the moment unnamed, master. He then led his army west to Sijilmasa, whence he led Abdallah in triumph to Raqqada, which he entered on 15 January 910. There Abdallah publicly proclaimed himself as [[caliph]] with the [[laqab|regnal name]] of {{transliteration|ar|al-Mahdī}}, and presented his son and heir, with the regnal name of [[Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|al-Qa'im]].{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}} Al-Mahdi quickly fell out with Abu Abdallah: not only was the {{transliteration|ar|dā'ī}} over-powerful, but he demanded proof that the new caliph was the true {{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}. The elimination of Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and his brother led to an uprising among the Kutama, led by a child-{{transliteration|ar|mahdī}}, which was suppressed. At the same time, al-Mahdi repudiated the millenarian hopes of his followers and curtailed their [[Naskh (tafsir)|antinomian]] tendencies.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

The new regime regarded its presence in Ifriqiya as only temporary: the real target was [[Baghdad]], the capital of the Fatimids' Abbasid rivals.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} The ambition to carry the revolution eastward had to be postponed after the failure of two successive invasions of Egypt, led by al-Qa'im, in [[Fatimid invasion of Egypt (914–915)|914–915]] and [[Fatimid invasion of Egypt (919–921)|919–921]].{{sfn|Halm|2014}} In addition, the Fatimid regime was as yet unstable. The local population were mostly adherents of [[Maliki]] Sunnism and various [[Kharijite]] sects such as [[Ibadism]],{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}} so that the real power base of Fatimids in Ifriqiya was quite narrow, resting on the Kutama soldiery, later extended by the [[Sanhaja]] Berber tribes as well. The historian [[Heinz Halm]] describes the early Fatimid state as being, in essence, "a hegemony of the Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib".{{sfn|Halm|2014}}

[[File:Islamic_Section_Mahdia_Museum_12082020_002.jpg|thumb|Fragments of [[mosaic]] pavement from the palace of [[Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)|al-Qa'im]] in [[Mahdia|al-Mahdiyya]] (Mahdia), on display at the [[Mahdia Museum]]]]
In 912, al-Mahdi began looking for the site of a new capital along the Mediterranean shore.<ref name=":8" /> Construction of the new fortified palace city, [[Mahdia|al-Mahdiyya]], began in 916.{{sfn|Halm|2014}} The new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, though construction continued after this.<ref name=":8" /> The new capital was removed from the Sunni stronghold of Kairouan, allowing for the establishment of a secure base for the Caliph and his Kutama forces without raising further tensions with the local population.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=852}}<ref name=":8" />

The Fatimids also inherited the Aghlabid province of [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which the Aghlabids had [[Muslim conquest of Sicily|gradually conquered]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] starting in 827. The conquest was generally completed when the last [[Christians|Christian]] stronghold, [[Taormina]], was conquered by Ibrahim II in 902.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Davis-Secord |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5017-1258-6 |pages=119–20 |language=en |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=16 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916020842/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}} However, some Christian or Byzantine resistance continued in some spots in the northeast of Sicily until 967, and the Byzantines still held territories in southern Italy, where the Aghlabids had also campaigned.{{sfn|Daftary|2007|p=143}}<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Metcalfe |first=Alex |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year= |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Italy, Islam in premodern |journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |issn=1873-9830 |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halm|1996|p=107}}<ref name=":2" /> This ongoing confrontation with the traditional foe of the Islamic world provided the Fatimids with a prime opportunity for propaganda, in a setting where geography gave them the advantage.{{sfn|Lev|1995|pp=194–95}} Sicily itself proved troublesome, and only after a rebellion under [[Ibn Qurhub]] was subdued, was Fatimid authority on the island consolidated.{{sfn|Canard|1965|p=853}}