Editing Epistle of Jude (section)

==Identity of the opponents==
The epistle fiercely condemns the opponents it warns of and declares that God will judge and punish them, despite them being a part of the Christian community. However, the exact nature of these opponents has been a continuing question, as the epistle does not describe them in any more detail than calling them corrupt and ungodly. Several theories have been proposed.  The most specific verse describing the opponents is verse 8:
{{Blockquote|text=In the very same way, on the strength of their dreams these ungodly people pollute their own bodies, reject authority and heap abuse on celestial beings.
|title=Jude 1:8 (NIV)<ref name=jude1-8>{{bibleverse|Jude|1:8|NIV}}</ref>
}}

Reject "authority" (κυριότητα, ''kyriotēta''; alternate translations include "dominion" or "lordship") could mean several things. The most direct would be rejection of civil or ecclesiastical authority: the opponents were ignoring guidance from leaders. [[Martin Luther]] and [[Jean Calvin]] agreed with this interpretation, and it is the most common one.<ref name="hillyer" /> Another possibility is that this specifically referred to rejecting the authority of Jesus or God, which would agree with verse 4 and be reinforcing the claim that these opponents are not true Christians.<ref name="hillyer" /> A third possibility is that this is the singular of [[Christian angelology#Dominations or Lordships|''kyriotētes'' (Dominions), a class of angels]].<ref name="hillyer">{{cite book |last=Hillyer |first=Norman |date=1992 |title=New International Biblical Commentary: 1 and 2 Peter, Jude |location=Peabody, Massachusetts |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |page=247&ndash;250 |isbn=0-943575-87-7}}</ref> This would fit with the final part of the sentence of "heap abuse on celestial beings", but it is unusual that the singular is used. [[Textual variants in the Epistle of Jude|Versions of Jude]] vary, and some manuscripts such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] indeed use the plural form.<ref>{{harvnb|Donelson|2013|p=182}}.</ref>

"Heap abuse on celestial beings" is also a relevant statement, as it stands in some tension with the works of [[Paul the Apostle]] as well as the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]].<ref name=hillyer/><ref>{{bibleverse|Hebrews|1|NRSV}}</ref> Paul's undisputed works indicate that believers are already on the same level as angels, that all existing powers are subject to Christ, and believers are the future judges of angels.<ref name=Ehrman2012/> Later writings attributed to Paul such as [[Colossians]] and [[Ephesians]] go even further, with Colossians decrying the alleged worship of angels.<ref name= Ehrman2012/> A hypothesis is thus that the author may have been attacking forms of Pauline Christianity that were not suitably deferential to angels in their opinion. "Rejecting authority" may be a reference to Paul's preaching that gentiles did not need to comply with Jewish Law. As James was known to be a major figure among Jewish Christians, this might indicate tension between the more Jewish strands of early Christianity represented by James and Jude set against Paul's message to the gentiles.<ref name=Ehrman2012/>  However, the line about "heap abuse on celestial beings" might have essentially been just another insult, in which case this entire line of thought is rendered moot.

Another hypothesis is that the opponents may have been proto-[[Gnostic]]s, argued for by scholars such as {{ill|Hermann Werdermann|de}}. Proposed evidence in support of this includes that in verse 19, the opponents are called "worldly" (''psychikoi''), a term also used in relation to Gnosticism in other literature.<ref name="perrin" /><ref name="Rowston1975">{{cite journal |last1=Rowston |first1=Douglas J. |date=1975 |title=The Most Neglected Book in the New Testament |journal=New Testament Studies |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=554–563 |doi=10.1017/S0028688500010031 }}</ref> While it does seem that Jude may have been used to attack Gnostics in later centuries, other scholars think this was unlikely to be the original intent, as the opponents aren't described as having the signature doctrines of Gnosticism, and Gnosticism does not seem to have been a major force in [[first century Christianity]]. [[Richard Bauckham]], arguing against such a connection, writes that "If [Jude]'s polemic is really aimed against Gnosticism it is singularly inept."{{sfn|Bauckham|1983|pp=10-13}}

The inherent vagueness of the epistle means that the identities of these opponents may never be known.