Editing Epirus (section)

===Roman and Byzantine rule===
====Epirus as a Roman province====
{{main|Epirus (Roman province)}}
The region of Epirus was placed under the [[senatorial province]] of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]] in 27 BC, with the exception of its northernmost part, which remained part of the province of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=47}} Under Emperor [[Trajan]], sometime between 103 and 114 AD, Epirus became a separate province, under a ''[[procurator (Roman)|procurator]] [[Augustus (honorific)|Augusti]]''. The new province extended from the Gulf of Aulon ([[Vlorë]]) and the [[Acroceraunian Mountains]] in the north to the lower course of the [[Acheloos River]] in the south, and included the northern Ionian Islands of [[Corfu]], [[Lefkada]], [[Ithaca (island)|Ithaca]], [[Cephallonia]], and [[Zakynthos]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=47}}

====Late Antiquity====
[[File:Moesia - AD 400.png|thumb|The [[Roman province]]s in the Balkans, including ''Epirus Vetus'' and ''Epirus Nova'', ca. 400 AD]]
Sometime during the provincial reorganization by [[Diocletian]] (r. 284–305), the western portion of the province of Macedonia along the Adriatic coast was split off into a new province, called "New Epirus" ({{langx|la|[[Illyris|Epirus Nova]]}}) which roughly corresponded to southern [[Illyria]] proper, historically inhabited by [[Illyrian tribes]]. Epirus proper thereafter became known as "Old Epirus" ({{langx|la|Epirus Vetus}}, {{langx|grc|Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος}}).{{sfn|Shpuza|2014|p=59}}{{sfn|Shpuza|2022|p=553}}

The two Epirote provinces became part of the [[Diocese of Moesia]], until it was divided in ca. 369 into the dioceses of [[Diocese of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Diocese of Dacia|Dacia]], when they became part of the former.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=47–48}} In the 4th century, Epirus was still a stronghold of [[paganism]], and was aided by Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] (r. 361–363) and his [[praetorian prefect]] [[Claudius Mamertinus]] through reduction in taxes and the rebuilding of the provincial capital, [[Nicopolis]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} According to [[Jordanes]], in 380 the [[Visigoths]] raided the area.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} With the division of the Empire on the death of [[Theodosius I]] in 395, Epirus became part of the Eastern Roman or [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} In 395–397, the Visigoths under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] plundered Greece. They remained in Epirus for a few years, until 401, and again in 406–407, during Alaric's alliance with the [[Western Roman]] generalissimo [[Stilicho]] in order to wrest the [[Eastern Illyricum]] from the Eastern Empire.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}}

[[File:Butrint-111198.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Buthrotum]]]]
The ''[[Synecdemus]]'' of [[Hierocles (author of Synecdemus)|Hierocles]], composed in ca. 527/8 AD but probably reflecting the situation in the first half of the 5th century, reports 11 cities for Old Epirus ({{langx|grc|Παλαιὰ Ἤπειρος}}, {{langx|la|Epirus Vetus}}): the capital Nicopolis, [[Dodona]], [[Euroea in Epiro|Euroea]], [[Dropull|Hadrianopolis]], [[Appon]], [[Phoenice]], [[Anchiasmos]], [[Buthrotum]], [[Photike]], Corfu Island, and Ithaca Island.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=48–49}} New Epirus, with capital at [[Dyrrhachium]], comprised 9 cities.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=48}} From 467 on, the Ionian Islands and the coasts of Epirus became subject to raids by the [[Vandals]], who had taken over the [[North Africa]]n provinces and established their [[Kingdom of the Vandals|own kingdom]] centred on [[Carthage]]. The Vandals notably seized Nicopolis in 474 as a bargaining chip in their negotiations with Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], and plundered Zakynthos, killing many of its inhabitants and ferrying off others into slavery.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} [[Epirus Nova]] became a battleground in the rebellions of the [[Ostrogoths]] after 479.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} In 517, a raid of the [[Getae]] or [[Antae]] reached Greece, including [[Epirus Vetus]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} The claim of [[Procopius of Caesarea]] in his ''Secret History'', that under [[Justinian I]] (r. 527–565) the entirety of the Balkan provinces was raided by barbarians every year, is considered rhetorical hyperbole by modern scholars; only a single Slavic raid to the environs of Dyrrhachium, in 548/9, has been documented.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=49}} Procopius further reports that in 551, in an attempt to interdict the Byzantines' lines of communication with Italy during the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]], the Ostrogoth king [[Totila]] sent his fleet to raid the shores of Epirus.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=50}} In response to these raids, and to repair the damage done by two destructive earthquakes in 522, Justinian initiated a wide-ranging programme of reconstruction and re-fortification: Hadrianopolis was rebuilt, albeit in reduced extent, and renamed Justinianopolis, while [[Euroea in Epiro|Euroea]] was moved further inland (traditionally identified with the founding of [[Ioannina]]), while Procopius claims that no less than 36 smaller fortresses in Epirus Vetus—most of them not identifiable today—were either rebuilt or built anew.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=50}}

====Epirus from the Slavic invasions until 1204====
In the late 6th century Epirus proper fell under the control of the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and their Slavic allies. This is placed by the ''[[Chronicle of Monemvasia]]'' in the year 587, and is further corroborated by evidence that several sees were abandoned by their bishops by 591. Thus in {{circa|590}} the bishop, clergy and people of Euroea fled their city, carrying with them the relics of their patron saint, [[Donatus of Evorea|St. Donatus]], to Cassiope in Corfu.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=51}}

Of the various Slavic tribes, only the [[Baiounitai]], first attested {{circa|615}}, are known by name, giving their name to their region of settlement: "[[Vagenetia]]".{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=51}} Based on the density of the Slavic toponyms in Epirus, the Slavs must have settled in the region, although the extent of this settlement is unclear.<ref name="EllisKlusakova2007">{{harvnb|Osswald|2007|p=128}}.</ref> Slavic toponyms occur mainly in the mountainous areas of the interior and the coasts of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], indicative of the fact that this was the avenue used by most of the Slavs who crossed the Gulf into the [[Peloponnese]]. With the exception of some few toponyms on Corfu, the Ionian Islands seem to not have been affected by Slavic settlement. The linguistic analysis of the toponyms reveals that they date mostly to the early wave of Slavic settlement at the turn of the 6th/7th centuries. Due to scarcity of textual evidence, it is unclear how much the area was affected by the second wave of Slavic migration, which began in the middle of the 8th century due to [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgar]] pressure in the northern Balkans.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=51–52}} Slavic toponyms are nearly lacking in the mountains of [[Labëria]] (on the [[Kurvelesh (region)|Kurvelesh plateau]]), in the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian coast]] where today [[Lab Albanian dialect|Lab Albanian]] villages neighbour with the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] ones, therefore it can be assumed that the expansion of the Slavs had not reached this region.{{sfn|Desnickaja|1973|p=48}} A number of Slavic toponyms in Epirus proper were acquired by Albanian in the earliest phase of contacts between the two languages ([[Early Middle Ages]]), reflecting some of the more archaic phonetic features of Slavic as well as early Albanian phonology.{{sfn|Ylli|1997|p=317}}{{sfn|Ylli|2000|pp=103, 106, 136, 174, 175, 183, 197, 267, 269}}

As in eastern Greece, the restoration of Byzantine rule seems to have proceeded from the islands, chiefly Cephallonia, which was certainly under firm Imperial control in {{circa|702}}, when [[Philippicus Bardanes]] was banished there. The gradual restoration of Imperial rule is evidenced further from the participation of local bishops in councils in [[Constantinople]]: whereas only the bishop of Dyrrhachium participated in the Ecumenical Councils of [[Third Council of Constantinople|680/1]] and [[Quinisext Council|692]], a century later the bishops of Dyrrhachium, Nicopolis, Corfu, Cephallonia, and Zakynthos are attested in the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=52}} In about the middle of the 8th century, the [[Theme of Cephallenia]] was established, but at least initially it was more oriented towards restoring Byzantine control over the Ionian and Adriatic seas, combating Saracen piracy, and securing communications with the remaining Byzantine possessions in Italy, rather than any systematic effort at subduing the Epirote mainland.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=52}} Nevertheless, following the onset of the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] in 827, the Ionian became particularly exposed to Arab raids.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}}

[[File:Byzantine Greece ca 900 AD.svg|thumb|right|Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in ca. 900 AD, with the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]] and major settlements.]]
The 9th century saw great progress in the restoration of Imperial control in the mainland, as evidenced by the participation of the bishops of Ioannina, [[Naupaktos]], Hadrianopolis, and Vagenetia (evidently by now organized as a ''[[Sklavinia]]'' under imperial rule) in the Ecumenical Councils of [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic)|869/70]] and [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)|879/80]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}} The Byzantine recovery resulted in an influx of Greeks from southern Italy and [[Asia Minor]] into the Greek interior, while remaining Slavs were Christianized and [[Hellenization|Hellenized]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=64}} The eventual success of the Hellenization campaign also suggests a continuity of the original Greek population, and that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north, in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=64}} Following the [[Battle of Cephalonia|great naval victory]] of admiral [[Nasar]] in 880, and the beginning of the Byzantine offensive against the Arabs in southern Italy in the 880s, the security situation improved and the [[Theme of Nicopolis]] was established, most likely after 886.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=53}}{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=1485}} As the ancient capital of Epirus had been laid waste by the Slavs, the capital of the new theme became Naupaktos further south. The extent of the new province is unclear, but probably matched the extent of the [[Metropolis of Naupaktos]], established at about the same time, encompassing the sees of Vonditsa, Aetos, Acheloos, [[Rogoi]], Ioannina, Hadrianopolis, Photike, and Buthrotum. Vagenetia notably no longer appears as a bishopric. As the authors of the ''[[Tabula Imperii Byzantini]]'' comment, it appears that "the Byzantine administration had brought the strongly Slavic-settled areas in the mainland somewhat under its control, and a certain Re-Hellenization had set in".{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=53–54}} Further north, the region around [[Dyrrhachium]] existed as the [[Dyrrhachium (theme)|homonymous theme]] possibly as early as the 9th century.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=668}}

During the early 10th century, the themes of Cephallenia and Nicopolis appear mostly as bases for expeditions against southern Italy and Sicily, while [[Mardaites]] from both themes are listed in the large but unsuccessful expedition of 949 against the [[Emirate of Crete]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=54}} In {{circa|930}}, the Theme of Nicopolis was raided by the Bulgarians, who even occupied some parts until driven out or subjugated by the Byzantines years later.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=54}} Only the extreme north of Epirus seems to have remained consistently under Bulgarian rule in the period, but under Tsar [[Samuel of Bulgaria|Samuel]], who moved the centre of Bulgarian power south and west to [[Ohrid]], probably all of Epirus down to the [[Ambracian Gulf]] came under Bulgarian rule.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}} This is evidenced from the fact that the territories that were under Bulgarian rule formed part of the [[autocephalous]] [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]] after the [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria]] by Emperor [[Basil II]] in 1018: thus in Epirus the sees of [[Chimara]], Hadrianopolis, Bela, Buthrotum, Ioannina, Kozyle, and Rogoi passed under the jurisdiction of Ohrid, while the Metropolitan of Naupaktos retained only the sees of Bonditza, Aetos, and Acheloos.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}} Basil II also established new, smaller themes in the region: [[Kolonje|Koloneia]], and [[Dryinopolis]] (Hadrianopolis).{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|p=55}}

The region joined the [[uprising of Petar Delyan]] in 1040, and suffered in the [[First Norman invasion of the Balkans]]: Dyrrhachium was [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|occupied]] by the [[Normans]] in 1081–1084, [[Arta, Greece|Arta]] was unsuccessfully besieged, and Ioannina was captured by [[Robert Guiscard]].{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=55–56}} An [[Aromanians|Aromanian]] presence in Epirus is first mentioned in the late 11th century, while Jewish communities are attested throughout the medieval period in Arta and Ioannina.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=129}}

====Despotate of Epirus====
[[File:Epirus 1205-1230-en.svg|thumb|alt=Map of the Balkans, with the original core of Epirus and its conquered territories shown in various shades of green|Expansion of the [[Despotate of Epirus]] in the early 13th century]]
When [[Constantinople]] fell to the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204, the ''[[partitio Romaniae]]'' assigned Epirus to [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], but the Venetians were largely unable to effectively establish their authority, except over Dyrrhachium (the "[[Duchy of Durazzo (Republic of Venice)|Duchy of Durazzo]]"). The Greek noble [[Michael I Komnenos Doukas|Michael Komnenos Doukas]], who had married the daughter of a local magnate, took advantage of this, and within a few years consolidated his control over most of Epirus, first as a Venetian [[vassal]] and eventually as an independent ruler. By the time of his death in 1214/5, Michael had established a strong state, the [[Despotate of Epirus]], with the former theme of Nicopolis at its core and Arta as its capital.{{sfn|Soustal|Koder|1981|pp=59–61}}{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=132}} Epirus, and the city of Ioannina in particular, became a haven for Greek refugees from the [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]] for the next half century.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=132}}

The Despotate of Epirus ruled over Epirus and western Greece as far south as Naupaktos and the Gulf of Corinth, much of Albania (including Dyrrhachium), Thessaly, and the western portion of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], extending its rule briefly over central Macedonia and most of [[Thrace]] following the aggressive expansionism of [[Theodore Komnenos Doukas]], who established the [[Empire of Thessalonica]] in 1224.{{sfn|Nicol|1984|loc="Introduction", pp. 4–5}}{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=133}} During this time, the definition of Epirus came to encompass the entire coastal region from the Ambracian Gulf to Dyrrhachium, and the hinterland to the west up to the highest peaks of the [[Pindus]] mountain range. Some of the most important cities in Epirus, such as Gjirokastër (Argyrokastron), were founded during this period.{{sfn|Giakoumis|2002|p=176}} The oldest reference to [[Albanians]] in the area of Epirus proper is from a Venetian document dating to 1210, which states that "the continent facing the island of Corfu is inhabited by Albanians".<ref>{{harvnb|Giakoumis|2002|p=176|ps=: "Are we obliged to see in this a possible earlier Albanian immigration in the Epeirote lands, as Kostas Komis did in the case of the etymology of the toponym 'Preveza'? I believe that the use of hypothetical immigrations as a basis to interpret sources that indicate the presence of Albanians in the Epeirote lands prior to the thirteenth-fourteenth century is somewhat arbitrary."}}</ref>

====14th century and Ottoman conquest====
In 1337, Epirus was once again brought under the rule of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologoi|restored Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=133}} In 1348, taking advantage of the [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|civil war]] between the Byzantine emperors [[John V Palaiologos]] and [[John VI Kantakouzenos]], the Serbian king [[Stefan Uroš IV Dušan]] conquered Epirus, with a number of Albanian mercenaries assisting him.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=135}} The Byzantine authorities in Constantinople soon re-established a measure of control by making the Despotate of Epirus a [[vassal state]], but Albanian clans proceeded to invade and seize most of the region. Under [[Peter Losha|Pjetër Losha]], the Albanian [[Malakasioi|Malakasi]] and [[Mazreku (Epirus)|Mazaraki]] tribes defeated [[Nikephoros II Orsini]] at the [[Battle of Achelous (1359)|Battle of Achelous]] in 1359, which won Pjetër Losha the rule of [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]; Losha then founded the [[Despotate of Arta]] (1358-1416) with the help of the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans.<ref>Epeirotica 2.220; cf. 222 f</ref>

[[File:Map of the southern Balkans, 1410.svg|thumb|right|Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410]]

Although Albanian clans gained control of most of the region by 1366/7, their continued division into rival clans meant that they could not establish a single central authority.<ref name="mb">{{harvnb|Fine|1994|pp=348–351}}.</ref> Ioannina became a center of Greek resistance to the Albanian clans. The Greeks of Ioannina offered power to three foreign rulers during this time, beginning with [[Thomas II Preljubović]] (1367–1384), whose rule was marked by hostilities in the region, as Ioannina came under constant siege by the Mazaraki and Malakasi clans under Losha. These tribes would besiege Ioannina a second time in 1374–1375.{{sfn|Sansaridou-Hendrickx|2017|p=294}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|pp=142–145}}<ref name="Sakellariou1997">{{cite book|author=M. V. Sakellariou|title=Epirus, 4000 years of Greek history and civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UV1oAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Ekdotikē Athēnōn|isbn=978-960-213-371-2|quote=For the Albanian tribes of the Mazarakaioi and the Malakasioi, led by Peter Losha the despot of Arta,}}</ref> A truce was signed when Pjetër's son Gjin was betrothed to Thomas's daughter Irina, but she would soon die in the 1375 plague and hostilities would recommence.{{sfnm|Nicol|1984|1pp=142–145|Fine|1994|2pp=351–352|Sansaridou-Hendrickx|2017|3p=294}} Preljubović attempted to pacify the Albanians of Epirus; however, under [[Gjin Bua Shpata]], the Albanians defeated him.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_VBoAAAAMAAJ Hammond, 1976 & ps]''"The Albanians and in particular the Mazarakii of the Kalamas valley held firm against him. In 1385 he was assassinated by some of his own bodyguards"'' (Epeirotica 2.230), p. 59.</ref>

The reign of [[Esau de' Buondelmonti]] (1385–1411) in Ioannina followed, and with an army that consisted of the Albanian tribes of the Mazaraki and Malakasi, he marched against the [[Principality of Gjirokastër]]. He was defeated and captured by Albanian nobleman [[Gjon Zenebishi]], and ransomed for 10,000 gold pieces on the intervention of the Venetian governor of [[Corfu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Richard Wyatt |title=The Lord of Patras |date=1956 |publisher=A.G. Kalokairinos |page=343 |url=https://ir.lib.uth.gr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11615/10744/article.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> At the time the Zenebishi clan controlled the area around Gjirokastër (1386–1411), while only the city of Ioannina remained under Greek control.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=134}}

[[Carlo I Tocco]] (1411–1429) then assumed control of Ioannina, commencing heavy conflicts with [[Yaqub Spata|Jakob]] and [[Maurice Spata|Muriq]] Shpata, the Albanian leaders of the [[Despotate of Arta]]. The Shpata were originally defeated by Carlo's brother [[Leonardo II Tocco]] at Mazoma near ancient [[Nicopolis]], but Carlo's son Torno was in turn defeated by the Albanians.{{sfn|PLP|loc=26521. Σπάτας Γιαγούπης}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|p=186}} After the Tocchi succeeded in capturing Rhiniasa, Leonardo tried to take Rogoi and Carlo attempted to take Arta, but Jakob and Muriq succeeded in defending their capital for the time being. Carlo withdrew to Ioannina, but soon after was able to lure Jakob to an ambush near Vobliana: Jakob was captured and immediately executed (1 October 1416).{{sfn|PLP|loc=26521. Σπάτας Γιαγούπης}}{{sfn|Nicol|1984|p=186}} Carlo had effectively ended the rule of the Albanian clans in southernmost Epirus.{{sfn|Osswald|2007|p=136}}

Nevertheless, internal dissension eased the Ottoman conquest, which began with the capture of Ioannina in 1430 and continued with Arta in 1449, [[Angelokastro, Aetolia-Acarnania|Angelokastro]] in 1460, [[Riniasa Castle]] and its environs (in what is now [[Preveza]]) in 1463,<ref>{{harvnb|Karabelas|2015|pp=972–975}}.</ref> and finally [[Vonitsa]] in 1479. With the exception of several coastal Venetian possessions, this was also the end of Latin rule in mainland Greece.