Editing Edward I of England (section)

==Early reign, 1274–1296==

===Conquest of Wales===
{{See also|Conquest of Wales by Edward I|Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd}}
[[File:Wales after the Treaty of Montgomery 1267 Colorblind.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Coloured map depicting Wales (adjacent to the Kingdom of England, coloured dark orange) following the Treaty of Montgomery of 1267. Gwynedd, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality, is green; the territories conquered by Llywelyn are purple; the territories of Llywelyn's vassals are blue; the lordships of the Marcher barons are shown as light orange; and the lordships of the King of England are shown in yellow.|Wales after the [[Treaty of Montgomery]] of 1267:
{{Leftlegend|#009E73|[[Gwynedd]], Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality}}
{{Leftlegend|#CC79A7|Territories conquered by [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#56B4E9|Territories of Llywelyn's vassals}}
{{Leftlegend|#E69F00|Lordships of the [[Marcher barons]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#F0E442|Lordships of the King of England}}
{{Leftlegend|#D55E00|Kingdom of England}}]]
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed the advantage after the Barons' War. The 1267 [[Treaty of Montgomery]] recognised his ownership of land he had conquered in the [[Perfeddwlad|Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad]] and his title of [[Prince of Wales]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=386}}; {{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=132}}.</ref> Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with dissatisfied [[Marcher Lords]], such as the Earl of Gloucester, [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer|Roger Mortimer]] and [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=322–323}}.</ref> Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother [[Dafydd ap Gruffydd|Dafydd]] and [[Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn]] of [[Powys]], after failing to assassinate Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=175}}.</ref> Citing ongoing hostilities and Edward's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to the King.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=174–175}}.</ref> For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to [[Eleanor de Montfort, Princess of Wales|Eleanor]], daughter of Simon de Montfort the Elder.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=327}}.</ref>

In November 1276, Edward declared war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=409}}, {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=170}}</ref> Initial operations were under the captaincy of Mortimer, Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, and [[William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick]].<ref name=Powicke1962P409/>{{Efn|Lancaster's post was held by Payne de Chaworth until April.<ref name="Powicke1962P409">{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=409}}.</ref>}} Support for Llywelyn was weak among his countrymen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=150}}.</ref> In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welsh.<ref name="P151">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=151}}.</ref> The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn realised he had no choice but to surrender.<ref name="P151"/> By the [[Treaty of Aberconwy]] in November 1277, he was left only with the land of [[Gwynedd]], though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=413}}.</ref>

War broke out again in 1282. The Welsh saw the war as being over national identity and the right to traditional Welsh law. This enjoyed wide support, provoked by attempts to abuse the English legal system to dispossess prominent Welsh landowners, many of whom were Edward's former opponents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1984|pp=51–69}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=346–347}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=175, 178}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=153–154}}, {{harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=185-188}}</ref> For Edward, it became a war of conquest aimed to "put an end finally to … the malice of the Welsh".<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=346–347}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=175, 178}}, {{harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=188-189}}</ref> The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received in 1277.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=348}}.</ref> Llywelyn and other Welsh leaders soon joined in, and initially the Welsh attack was successful. In June, Gloucester was defeated at the [[Battle of Llandeilo Fawr]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=180}}.</ref> On 6&nbsp;November, while [[John Peckham]], Archbishop of Canterbury, was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of [[Anglesey]], [[Luke de Tany]], carried out a surprise attack. A [[pontoon bridge]] had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the [[Battle of Moel-y-don]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=191–192}}.</ref> The Welsh advances ended on 11&nbsp;December, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the [[Battle of Orewin Bridge]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=353}}.</ref> The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to [[Shrewsbury]] and executed as a traitor the following year;<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=510}}.</ref> Edward ordered Dafydd's head to be publicly exhibited on [[London Bridge]].<ref name= Hamilton69>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=69}}.</ref> 

[[File:Caernafon Wards.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.13|alt=View of the wards of Caernarfon Castle, erected during the reign of Edward I in Wales.|[[Caernarfon Castle]], one of the castles erected in Wales during the reign of<br />Edward I]]
By the 1284 [[Statute of Rhuddlan]], the [[principality of Wales]] was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=511}}.</ref> English law was introduced in criminal cases; the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|2000|p=368}}.</ref> After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like [[Flint, Flintshire|Flint]], [[Aberystwyth]] and [[Rhuddlan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=216}}.</ref> Their new residents were English migrants, the local Welsh being banned from living there, and many were protected by extensive walls.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lilley|2010|pp=104–106}}.</ref>{{efn|Clauses in the town charters were also included stating that "Jews shall not sojourn in the borough at any time", both before and after the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion]] of the Jews in 1290.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillaby|Hillaby|2013|p=143}}</ref>}} 

An extensive project of castle building was also initiated, under the direction of [[James of Saint George]],<ref name= Hamilton70>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=70}}.</ref> a prestigious architect Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coldstream|2010|pp=39–40}}; {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=116}}.</ref> These included [[Beaumaris Castle|Beaumaris]], [[Caernarfon Castle|Caernarfon]], [[Conwy Castle|Conwy]] and [[Castell Harlech|Harlech]] castles, intended to act as fortresses, royal palaces and as the new centres of civilian and judicial administration.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=160}}; {{Harvnb|Brears|2010|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=360}}.</ref> His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the widespread introduction of [[arrowslit]]s in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern architectural influences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=84}}.</ref> Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the [[concentric castle]], and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cathcart King|1988|p=83}}; {{Harvnb|Friar|2003|p=77}}.</ref> The castles drew on imagery associated with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and [[King Arthur]] in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new rule, and they made a clear statement about Edward's intention to rule Wales permanently.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2010|p=6}}; {{Harvnb|Wheatley|2010|pp=129, 136}}.</ref> The Welsh aristocracy were nearly wholly dispossessed of their lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=361}}</ref> Edward was the greatest beneficiary of this process.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=362-363}}</ref> Localised rebellions occurred in 1287–88, partly caused by Edward failing to reward former Welsh allies. [[Welsh revolt of 1294–95|A more serious revolt came in 1294]], under the leadership of [[Madog ap Llywelyn]], a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=218–220}}.</ref> The causes of the 1294 revolt included resentment at the occupation, poor, colonial-style governance, and very heavy taxation.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=367, 382-383}}, {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=216–222, 232}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=168-169}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|p=196}}</ref> This last conflict demanded the King's attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=221–225}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=71}}.</ref> The revolt was followed by immediate punitive measures including taking 200 hostages.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=384}}</ref> Measures to stop the Welsh from bearing arms or living in the new boroughs probably date from this time, and the Welsh administration continued to be nearly wholly imported.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|p=385}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=173-175}}</ref> 

In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later [[Edward&nbsp;II]]) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a statement about the new political order in Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=35–36}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=3}}.</ref>{{efn|[[David Powel]], a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this widely reported account.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=36}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=3–4}}; {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=206}}.</ref>}} In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested as Prince of Wales, when the King granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales, hoping to give his son more financial independence.<ref name="Phillips2011PP85Phillips2004">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=85–87}}</ref>{{Efn|This title became the traditional title of the [[heir apparent]] to the English throne. Prince Edward was not born heir apparent, but became so when his older brother [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]], died in 1284.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=126–127}}.</ref>}} Edward began a more conciliatory policy to rebuild systems of patronage and service, particularly through his son as Prince of Wales, but Wales remained politically volatile, and a deep distrust remained between the English settlers and the Welsh.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2000|pp=384, 382-383}}, {{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=173-175}}</ref>

===Diplomacy and war on the Continent===
{{Further|Franco-Mongol alliance|Europeans in Medieval China#Diplomatic missions to Europe}}
[[File:Eduard+Filip.jpg|thumb|upright=1.17|alt=A miniature of Edward giving homage to Philip IV. Both men are wearing crowns and kneeling in front of one another.|Edward&nbsp;I (right) giving homage to [[Philip&nbsp;IV of France]] (left). As [[Duke of Aquitaine]], Edward was a [[vassal]] of the French king.]]
Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in 1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and in 1287 took a vow to go on another crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=55}}, {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=326–328}}.</ref> This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least 1291. To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to prevent conflict between the sovereigns on [[Continental Europe]].<ref name="Prestwich 1997 333">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=333}}.</ref> A major obstacle to this was the conflict between the French [[Capetian House of Anjou]] ruling southern Italy and the Crown of Aragon in Spain.<ref name="Prestwich 1997 333"/> In 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou and turned for help to [[Peter III of Aragon]], in what has become known as the [[Sicilian Vespers]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Runciman|1958|pp=128–149, 236–237}}</ref> In [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|the war]] that followed, Charles of Anjou's son, [[Charles of Salerno]], was taken prisoner by the Aragonese.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|pp=252–253}}.</ref> The French began planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of a large-scale European war. To Edward, it was imperative that such a war be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce between France and Aragon that helped secure Charles's release.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=323–325}}; {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=72}}.</ref> As far as the crusades were concerned, Edward's efforts proved ineffective. A devastating blow to his plans came in 1291, when the Mamluks [[Siege of Acre (1291)|captured Acre]], the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=329}}.</ref>

Edward had long been deeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony.<ref name= Hamilton73>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=73}}.</ref> In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to his trusted associates [[Otto de Grandson]] and the [[Lord Chancellor|chancellor]] Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of the [[seneschal]] Luke de Tany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=304}}.</ref> In 1286, Edward visited the region and stayed for almost three years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=204–217}}.</ref> On Easter Sunday 1287, Edward was standing in a tower when the floor collapsed. He fell 80 feet, broke his collarbone, and was confined to bed for several months. Several others died.{{sfn|Tolan|2023|p=180}} Soon after he regained his health, he ordered the local Jews expelled from Gascony,{{sfn|Prestwich|1997|p=306}} seemingly as a "thank-offering" for his recovery.<ref>{{harvnb|Huscroft|2006|pp=145-146}}, {{harvnb|Tolan|2023|pp=180-181}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=223-224}}</ref>{{efn|It has generally been assumed the expulsion was an attempt to raise capital to secure Charles's release. However, Edward donated what income was made from property seizures to mendicant orders.<ref>{{harvnb|Huscroft|2006|pp=145-146}}, {{harvnb|Tolan|2023|pp=180-181}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2009|p=226}}</ref>}}

The perennial problem was the status of Gascony within the Kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king's vassal. On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, [[Philip IV of France|Philip{{nbsp}}IV]]. Following an outbreak of piracy and informal war between English, Gascon, Norman, and French sailors in 1293, his brother Edmund Crouchback allowed Philip IV to occupy Gascony's chief fortresses as a show of good faith that Edward had not intended the seizure of several French ships or the sacking of the French port of [[La Rochelle]]. Philip refused to release the fortresses, and declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him again in Paris.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=265–270}}.</ref>

Correspondence between Edward and the [[Ilkhanate|Mongol court of the east]] continued during this time.<ref name="Prestwich 1997 330">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=330}}.</ref> Diplomatic channels between the two had begun during Edward's time on crusade, regarding a possible alliance to retake the Holy Land for Europe. Edward received Mongol envoys at his court in Gascony while there in 1287, and one of their leaders, [[Rabban Bar Sauma]], recorded an extant account of the interaction.<ref name="Prestwich 1997 330"/> Other embassies arrived in Europe in 1289 and 1290, the former relaying Ilkhan Abaqa's offer to join forces with the crusaders and supply them with horses.<ref name="Prestwich 1997 330331">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=330–331}}.</ref> Edward responded favourably, declaring his intent to travel to the east once he obtained papal approval. This did not materialise, but the King's decision to send [[Geoffrey of Langley]] as his ambassador to the Mongols showed that he was seriously considering the prospective Mongol alliance.<ref name="Prestwich 1997 331">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=331}}.</ref>

Eleanor of Castile died on 28&nbsp;November 1290.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=229}}.</ref> The couple loved each other, and like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout their marriage.<ref name= Hamilton62>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=62}}.</ref> He was deeply affected by her death,<ref name=Chancellor203204>{{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|pp=203–204}}.</ref> and displayed his grief by ordering the construction of twelve so-called [[Eleanor cross]]es,<ref>{{Harvnb|Raban|2000|p=40}}.</ref> one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=230–231}}.</ref> 

In 1294 a war at sea flared up between English and Norman privateers. Philip the Fair exploited the conflict to confiscate Gascony, provoking Edward to renounce his homage and declare war.{{sfn|Vale|1990|pp=392-94}} After the initial fighting in Gascony, both kings sought to widen the conflict by forging expensive alliances. Edward joined forces with [[Adolf, King of the Romans|Adolf of Nassau]] (the King of Germany),{{sfn|Pilling|2021|p=80}} the [[Count of Flanders]] and the barons of [[Franche-Comté]] in eastern [[Burgundy]]. Other members of the alliance included two of his sons-in-law, the [[Duke of Brabant]] and the Count of [[Bar-le-Duc]].{{sfn|Prestwich|1972|pp=172-73}} Edward's strategy was to attack the French on all fronts and stretch their forces to their breaking point.{{sfn|Pilling|2021|p=80}} Most of his allies did indeed go into action and caused considerable damage in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], Burgundy, Gascony and the [[Toulouse|Toulousaine]].{{sfn|Pilling|2021|p=98}} However, the King of Germany failed to join Edward in Flanders,{{sfn|Pilling|2021|pp=98, 104}} obliging the allies to seek a truce in October 1297.{{sfn|Pilling|2021|pp=96, 99}} Edward renewed his military contract with the Burgundians in March 1298, prolonging the war in Franche-Comté. This may have been an effort to distract Philip and prevent him from aiding the Scots.{{sfn|Pilling|2021|pp=102-103}} The war was effectively frozen by the [[Treaty of Montreuil (1299)|Treaties of Montreuil in 1299]], whereby Edward agreed to marry Philip's sister Margaret. As part of her dowry Philip returned the county of Ponthieu, which had been seized along with Gascony in 1294. This restored Edward's position as a vassal of the French king, although Gascony was not formally returned until the 1303 Treaty of Paris.<ref>{{harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=416}}, {{harvnb|Chaplais|1982|pp=148-49}}</ref>

===Great Cause===
{{See also|Competitors for the Crown of Scotland}}
[[File:SanktEdvardsstol westminster.jpg|thumb|upright=0.95|alt=Front-view of the Coronation Chair, a wooden chair in Westminster Abbey used for the coronation of the English (and later British) monarch. There is a compartment at the bottom that is able to house the Stone of Scone, which originates from Scotland.|The [[Coronation Chair]] in [[Westminster Abbey]] was commissioned by Edward in 1296 to house the [[Stone of Scone]] and has been used for coronations for over 700 years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rodwell|2013|pp=n13, 77}}</ref>]]
The relationship between England and Scotland by the 1280s was one of relatively harmonious coexistence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=518}}.</ref> The issue of homage did not reach the same level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King [[Alexander&nbsp;III of Scotland]] paid homage to Edward, who was his brother-in-law, but apparently only for the lands he held in England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=357}}.</ref> Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis of the early 1290s. When Alexander died in 1286, he left as heir to the Scottish throne [[Margaret, Maid of Norway|Margaret]], his three-year-old granddaughter and sole surviving descendant.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=3–4}}.</ref> By the [[Treaty of Birgham]], it was agreed that Margaret should marry King Edward's six-year-old son [[Edward of Caernarfon]], though Scotland would remain free of English [[overlordship]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=361}}, {{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=235}}.</ref> Margaret, by now seven, sailed from Norway for Scotland in late 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in [[Orkney]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|p=42}}, {{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=237}}.</ref> This left the country without an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known as the [[Great Cause]].<ref name=Morris2009P253/>{{Efn|The term is an 18th-century invention.<ref name="Morris2009P253">{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=253}}.</ref>}}

Fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, of whom the foremost competitors were [[John Balliol]] and [[Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=231}}.</ref> The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to conduct the proceedings and administer the outcome, but not to arbitrate in the dispute. The actual decision would be made by 104 auditors{{snd}}40 appointed by Balliol, 40 by Brus and the remaining 24 selected by Edward from senior members of the Scottish political community.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=601}}.</ref> At Birgham, with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of great importance to Edward. Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised as Scotland's feudal overlord.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=361–363}}.</ref> The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the country had no king, no one had the authority to make this decision.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|p=45}}.</ref> This problem was circumvented when the competitors agreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=365}}.</ref> After a lengthy hearing, a decision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17&nbsp;November 1292.<ref name=Prestwich1997PP358/>{{Efn|Even though the principle of [[primogeniture]] did not necessarily apply to descent through female heirs, there is little doubt that Balliol's claim was the strongest one.<ref name="Prestwich1997PP358">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=358, 367}}.</ref>}}

Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still asserted his authority over Scotland. Against the objections of the Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=370}}.</ref> A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of [[Malcolm II, Earl of Fife]], in which Edward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the [[English Parliament]] to answer the charges.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=371}}.</ref> This the Scottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in the war against France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=86–88}}.</ref> This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an [[Auld Alliance|alliance with France]] and launched an unsuccessful attack on [[Carlisle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=88–91, 99}}.</ref> Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] which included the [[Sack of Berwick (1296)|massacre of civilians]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=99–100}}, {{Harvnb|Barrow|1983|p=396}}.</ref> At the [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]], Scottish resistance was effectively crushed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=471–473}}.</ref> Edward took the [[Stone of Scone|Stone of Destiny]]&nbsp;– the Scottish coronation stone{{Spaced ndash}}and brought it to Westminster, placing it in what became known as [[King Edward's Chair]]; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the [[Tower of London]], and installed Englishmen to govern the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=473–474}}.</ref> The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would be only temporary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=376}}.</ref>