Editing Edward II of England (section)

==Early reign (1307–1311)==
===Coronation and marriage===
[[File:Edward II - British Library Royal 20 A ii f10 (detail).jpg|thumb|alt=picture of Edward II being crowned|Edward II shown receiving the English crown in a contemporary illustration]]

Edward I mobilised another army for the Scottish campaign in 1307, which Prince Edward was due to join that summer, but the elderly king had been increasingly unwell and died on 7 July at [[Burgh by Sands]].<ref name="Phillips 2011 123">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=123}}.</ref> Edward travelled from London immediately after the news reached him, and on 20 July he was proclaimed king.<ref name=Phillips2011PP125/> He continued north into Scotland and on 4 August received homage from his Scottish supporters at [[Dumfries]], before abandoning the campaign and returning south.<ref name="Phillips2011PP125">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=125–126}}.</ref> Edward promptly recalled Piers Gaveston, who was then in exile, and made him [[Earl of Cornwall]], before arranging his marriage to the wealthy Margaret de Clare.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=126–127}}.</ref>{{Efn|Despite Edward appointing Piers Gaveston as the Earl of Cornwall in 1307, Edward's [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]] declined to recognise him as such until 1309.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=53}}.</ref>}} Edward also arrested his old adversary Bishop Langton, and dismissed him from his post as treasurer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=129}}.</ref> Edward&nbsp;I's body was kept at [[Waltham Abbey Church|Waltham Abbey]] for several months before being taken for burial to Westminster, where Edward erected a simple [[marble]] tomb for his father.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=131}}.</ref>{{Efn|The story that Edward I had asked his son to swear to boil his body, bury the flesh and take bones on campaign in Scotland was a later invention.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=123}}; {{Harvnb|Prestwich|1988|p=557}}.</ref>}}

In 1308, Edward's marriage to [[Isabella of France]] proceeded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=132}}.</ref> Edward crossed the [[English Channel]] to France in January, leaving Gaveston as his ''custos regni'' in charge of the kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=133}}.</ref> This arrangement was unusual, and involved unprecedented powers being delegated to Gaveston, backed by a specially engraved [[Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|pp=34–41}}.</ref> Edward probably hoped that the marriage would strengthen his position in Gascony and bring him much needed funds.<ref name=Brown1988P575/> The final negotiations, however, proved challenging: Edward and Philip&nbsp;IV did not like each other, and the French king drove a hard bargain over the size of Isabella's [[dower]] and the details of the administration of Edward's lands in France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1988|pp=574–575, 578, 584}}; {{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=131–134}}.</ref> As part of the agreement, Edward gave homage to Philip for the Duchy of Aquitaine and agreed to a commission to complete the implementation of the 1303 Treaty of Paris.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=131–134}}.</ref>

The pair were married in [[Boulogne]] on 25 January.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=52}}.</ref> Edward gave Isabella a [[Isabella Psalter|psalter]] as a wedding gift, and her father gave her gifts worth over 21,000&nbsp;[[French livre|livres]] and a fragment of the [[True Cross]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=135}}; {{Harvnb|Brown|1988|p=574}}.</ref> The pair returned to England in February, where Edward had ordered [[Westminster Palace]] to be lavishly restored in readiness for their coronation and wedding feast, complete with marble tables, forty ovens and a fountain that produced wine and pimento, a spiced medieval drink.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=135, 139–140}}.</ref> After some delays, the ceremony went ahead on 25 February at Westminster Abbey, under the guidance of [[Henry Woodlock]], the [[Bishop of Winchester]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=140}}.</ref> As part of the coronation, Edward swore to uphold "the rightful laws and customs which the community of the realm shall have chosen".<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=141}}.</ref> It is uncertain what this meant: It might have been intended to force Edward to accept future legislation, it may have been inserted to prevent him from overturning any future vows he might take, or it may have been an attempt by the king to ingratiate himself with the barons.<ref name="Phillips 2011 140–143">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=140–143}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|pp=56–58}}.</ref>{{Efn|It is unclear who wrote this part of the coronation oath, or what their intentions where. Historical discussions over the coronation oath have included debate over the tense of the Latin phrase ''aura eslau'', which would change the meaning of the oath from referring to future legislation, to a retrospective statement about respecting existing laws and customs. It is also uncertain to what extent any changes in the coronation oath were driven by wider political disagreements between Edward and the barons, or were specifically focused over concerns with Gaveston's position.<ref name="Phillips 2011 140–143"/>}} The event was marred by the large crowds of eager spectators who surged into the palace, knocking down a wall and forcing Edward to flee by the back door.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=144}}.</ref>

Isabella was only twelve at the time of her wedding, young even by the standards of the period, and Edward probably had sexual relations with mistresses during their first few years together.{{Sfn|Haines|2003|p=61}}{{Sfn|Phillips|2011|p=102}} During this time he fathered an illegitimate son, [[Adam FitzRoy|Adam]], who was born possibly as early as 1307.{{Sfn|Haines|2003|p=61}}{{Sfn|Phillips|2011|p=102}} Edward and Isabella's first son, the future [[Edward&nbsp;III]], was born in 1312 amid great celebrations, and three more children followed: [[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall|John]] in 1316, [[Eleanor of Woodstock|Eleanor]] in 1318 and [[Joan of the Tower|Joan]] in 1321.{{Sfn|Phillips|2011|p=102}}{{Sfn|Haines|2003|p=93}}

===Tensions over Gaveston===
[[File:Philip iv and family.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=painting of Philip IV and family|[[Isabella of France]] (third from the left) with her father, [[Philip&nbsp;IV of France]] (tallest), in a French manuscript]]

Gaveston's return from exile in 1307 was initially accepted by the barons, but opposition quickly grew.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2003|p=74}}; {{Harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=31}}.</ref> He appeared to have an excessive influence on royal policy, leading to complaints from one chronicler that there were "two kings reigning in one kingdom, the one in name and the other in deed".<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=135–137}}.</ref> Accusations, probably untrue, were levelled at Gaveston that he had stolen royal funds and had purloined Isabella's wedding presents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=136–138}}.</ref> Gaveston had played a key role at Edward's coronation, provoking fury from both the English and the French contingents about the earl's ceremonial precedence and magnificent clothes, and about Edward's apparent preference for Gaveston's company over that of Isabella at the feast.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=144–146}}; {{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=44}}.</ref>

[[Parliament of England|Parliament]] met in February 1308 in a heated atmosphere.<ref name="Phillips2011PP146">{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=146–147}}.</ref> Edward was eager to discuss the potential for governmental reform, but the barons were unwilling to begin any such debate until the problem of Gaveston had been resolved.<ref name=Phillips2011PP146/> Violence seemed likely, but the situation was resolved through the mediation of the moderate [[Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln]], who convinced the barons to back down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=146}}.</ref> A fresh parliament was held in April, where the barons once again criticised Gaveston, demanding his exile, this time supported by Isabella and the French monarchy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=147–149}}.</ref> Edward resisted, but finally acquiesced, agreeing to send Gaveston to Aquitaine, under threat of [[excommunication]] by the Archbishop of Canterbury should he return.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=149–150}}.</ref> At the last moment, Edward changed his mind and instead sent Gaveston to [[Dublin]], appointing him as the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=150–151}}.</ref>

Edward called for a fresh military campaign for Scotland, but this idea was quietly abandoned, and instead the king and the barons met in August 1308 to discuss reform.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=151}}.</ref> Behind the scenes, Edward started negotiations to convince both [[Pope Clement&nbsp;V]] and Philip&nbsp;IV to allow Gaveston to return to England, offering in exchange to suppress the Knights Templar in England, and to release Bishop Langton from prison.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=152–153}}.</ref> Edward called a new meeting of members of the Church and key barons in January 1309, and the leading earls then gathered in March and April, possibly under the leadership of [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=154–155}}.</ref> Another parliament followed, which refused to allow Gaveston to return to England, but offered to grant Edward additional taxes if he agreed to a programme of reform.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=156–157}}.</ref>

Edward sent assurances to the Pope that the conflict surrounding Gaveston's role was at an end.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=155}}.</ref> On the basis of these promises, and procedural concerns about how the original decision had been taken, the Pope agreed to annul the Archbishop's threat to excommunicate Gaveston, thus opening the possibility of Gaveston's return.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=155, 157–158}}.</ref> Gaveston arrived back in England in June, where he was met by Edward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=158}}.</ref> At the parliament the next month, Edward made a range of concessions to placate those opposed to Gaveston, including agreeing to limit the powers of the [[Lord Steward|royal steward]] and the [[marshal]] of the royal household, to regulate the Crown's unpopular powers of [[purveyance]], and to abandon recently enacted customs legislation; in return, parliament agreed to fresh taxes for the war in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=159}}.</ref> Temporarily, at least, Edward and the barons appeared to have come to a successful compromise.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=160}}.</ref>

===Ordinances of 1311===
{{Main article|Ordinances of 1311}}

Following his return, Gaveston's relationship with the major barons became increasingly difficult.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=161}}.</ref> He was considered arrogant, and he took to referring to the earls by offensive names, including calling one of their more powerful members the "dog of Warwick".<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=161}}; {{Harvnb|Chaplais|1994|p=68}}.</ref> The Earl of Lancaster and Gaveston's enemies refused to attend parliament in 1310 because Gaveston would be present.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=162}}.</ref> Edward was facing increasing financial problems, owing £22,000 to his [[Frescobaldi]] Italian bankers, and facing protests about how he was using his right of [[prise]]s to acquire supplies for the war in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=162–163}}.</ref> His attempts to raise an army for Scotland collapsed and the earls suspended the collection of the new taxes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=163}}.</ref>

The king and parliament met again in February 1310, and the proposed discussions of Scottish policy were replaced by debate of domestic problems.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=163–164}}.</ref> Edward was petitioned to abandon Gaveston as his counsellor and instead adopt the advice of 21 elected barons, termed [[Ordainers]], who would carry out a widespread reform of both the government and the royal household.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=164–166}}.</ref> Under huge pressure, he agreed to the proposal and the Ordainers were elected, broadly evenly split between reformers and conservatives.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=166}}.</ref> While the Ordainers began their plans for reform, Edward and Gaveston took a new army of around 4,700 men to Scotland, where the military situation had continued to deteriorate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=167–170}}.</ref> Robert the Bruce declined to give battle and the campaign progressed ineffectually over the winter until supplies and money ran out in 1311, forcing Edward to return south.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=169–171}}.</ref>

By now the Ordainers had drawn up their Ordinances for reform and Edward had little political choice but to give way and accept them in October.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|p=176}}; {{Harvnb|Haines|2003|p=76}}.</ref> The [[Ordinances of 1311]] contained clauses limiting the king's right to go to war or to grant land without parliament's approval, giving parliament control over the royal administration, abolishing the system of prises, excluding the Frescobaldi bankers, and introducing a system to monitor the adherence to the Ordinances.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=177–178}}.</ref> In addition, the Ordinances exiled Gaveston once again, this time with instructions that he should not be allowed to live anywhere within Edward's lands, including Gascony and Ireland, and that he should be stripped of his titles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=178–179, 182}}.</ref> Edward retreated to his estates at [[Windsor Castle|Windsor]] and [[Kings Langley]]; Gaveston left England, possibly for northern France or Flanders.<ref>{{Harvnb|Phillips|2011|pp=180–181}}.</ref>