Editing Dysphemism (section)

== Context and drift ==
Some phrases that are euphemisms in certain contexts can be considered dysphemistic in others. These are often referred to as X-phemisms:<ref name=Metaphor>{{cite journal|last=Plaff|first=Kerry|author2=Raymond W. Gibbs |author3=Michael D. Johnson |doi=10.1017/S0142716400009875|title=Metaphor in using and understanding euphemism and dysphemism|journal=Applied Psycholinguistics|year=1997|volume=18|issue=1|pages=59–83|s2cid=145583670}}</ref> whether the utterance is dysphemistic or not depends on the context of the utterance. For example, many X-phemisms regarding [[sexual intercourse]] could be considered euphemistic within peer groups yet dysphemistic in certain audiences. One might be more likely to say that one "got laid" to a friend than to one's grandparents.<ref name=Metaphor />

There may also be instances in which conflicting definitions of the same word may lead to unintentional dysphemism. The pejorative use of the word [[terrorist]] is a salient example, as definitions of the word terrorist may vary across cultures and even among individuals in the same culture. Typically, the word "terrorist" refers to one who uses violence and fear as a means to pursue political, religious or ideological aims. This definition is ambiguous, and many groups that refer to themselves as "freedom fighters", "revolutionaries", "rebels" or "liberators" are referred to as "terrorists" by dissenting parties.<ref name="Fighting Words" /> Labeling groups as terrorist draws associations with other groups labeled as such even when no direct connection might be present. In 2003, the Philippine government's intention to label the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] as a terrorist organization was indicated by the organization to be an escalation of hostilities.<ref name="Fighting Words">{{cite journal|last=Bhatia|first=Michael|title=Fighting Words: Naming Terrorists, Bandits, Rebels and Other Violent Actors|journal=Third World Quarterly|year=2005|volume=26|issue=1|page=6|doi=10.1080/0143659042000322874|s2cid=146726073|url=http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/courses/PoliticalScience/357B1/documents/BhatiaFightingWordsNamingTerroristsBanditsRebels.pdf|access-date=24 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624113340/http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/courses/PoliticalScience/357B1/documents/BhatiaFightingWordsNamingTerroristsBanditsRebels.pdf}}</ref> It was their belief that by calling their organization a terrorist organization they were being directly compared to Al-Qaeda, with whom they claim no connection. Naming groups in this way has been described, "A name will place emphasis on certain aspects and characteristics of an object, while neglecting or omitting other key areas".<ref name="Fighting Words" />

The interpretation and the production of a text (whether it be written, verbal, or multi-modal) depends on the previous knowledge and experience of the interpreter or producer. The individual compares matching features with representations stored in their long-term memory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fairclough|first=Norman|title=Language and power|year=2001|publisher=Longman|location=Harlow, [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-582-41483-9|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/languagepower00fair}}</ref> Certain lexical items can be used to activate these representations, conjuring stereotypical images which then become the prototype in the listener's mind. Dysphemic terms activate negative stereotypes present in the listener's memory and affect their interpretation of the given text.

=== Move from euphemism to dysphemism ===

The process of [[pejoration]] leads to words that were once considered euphemisms to now be considered dysphemisms. In [[American culture]], words like "colored" were once considered euphemisms,<ref name="Obscenity Symbol">{{cite journal|last=Read|first=Allan|title=An Obscenity Symbol|journal=American Speech|year=1934|volume=9|issue=4|pages=264–278|doi=10.2307/452191|jstor=452191}}</ref> but have since been replaced by terms like "Black" and "African American". Sometimes slight modifications of dysphemisms can make them acceptable: while "colored people" is considered dysphemistic, "people of color" does not carry the same connotations. The words "[[idiot]]" and "[[moron (psychology)|moron]]" were once polite terms to refer to people with mental disabilities,<ref name="Mismeasure of Man">{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Stephen Jay|title=The mismeasure of man|url=https://archive.org/details/mismeasureofman00goul_1|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Norton|location=New York|isbn=0-393-03972-2|edition=Rev. and expanded}}</ref> but they are now rarely used without dysphemism. Likewise, the word "retarded" was introduced as a new polite form once the previous terms became dysphemistic; since then, "retarded" has itself become dysphemistic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=Ben|date=Fall 2011|title=A Critique of Politically Correct Language|journal=The Independent Review|volume=16|issue=2|pages=279–291|jstor=24563157}}</ref> Often a word with both euphemistic and dysphemistic uses becomes restricted to the dysphemistic use alone. The term "[[euphemism treadmill]]",<ref name="The Blank Slate">{{cite book|last=Pinker|first=Steven|title=The blank slate: the modern denial of human nature|year=2002|publisher=Penguin|location=New York|isbn=978-0-14-200334-3}}</ref> coined by [[Steven Pinker]], describes this process, in which terms with an emotionally charged referent that were once euphemisms become dysphemistic by association with the referent.

=== Reclamation of dysphemisms ===

"[[Nigger]]" would typically be dysphemistic; however, if used between African Americans it may be seen as neutral (although extremely casual) by the listener, depending on their social distance from the speaker and perceived status relative to the other party;<ref name="E & D" /> see "[[nigga]]".

[[Reappropriation|Reclamations]] of dysphemistic terms have been both successful and unsuccessful. The term "[[chicano]]" was a derogatory term and has been successfully reclaimed. Some terms like "[[Yankee]]" (for an American) or "punk" (for a late 1970s rocker), began as derogatory but were not considered such and adopted proudly by the named group. There have also been movements to reclaim words for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and otherwise non-heterosexual people, such as "queer", "fag" and "dyke".<ref name="Rawson 1989" />

Other historic examples of dysphemism reclamation include the term [[Impressionism]], which originated as a critical remark that "[[Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' was not art, it was an impression", but was adopted to be the formal name of the style and was accepted by the artists themselves.