Editing Duḥkha (section)

===Early Buddhism===
''Duḥkha'' is one of the [[three marks of existence]], namely ''[[anitya]]'' ("impermanent"), ''duḥkha'' ("unsatisfactory"), ''[[anatman]]'' (without a lasting essence).{{refn|group=note|Beckwith: "The Buddha says All ''dharmas'' [<nowiki>=</nowiki> ''pragmata''] are<br>
''anitya'' "impermanent"<br>
''dukkha'' "unsatisfactory, imperfect, unstable"<br>
''anatman'' "without an innate self-identity"{{sfnp|Alexander|2019|p=36}}}}

Various sutras sum up how cognitive processes result in an aversion to unpleasant things and experiences (''duḥkha''), forming a corrupted process together with the complementary process of clinging to and craving for pleasure (''suhkha''). This is expressed as ''[[saṃsāra]]'', an ongoing process of death and rebirth,{{refn|group=note|name="PW"|Paul Williams: "All rebirth is due to karma and is impermanent. Short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one's own karma. The endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is samsara."{{sfn|Williams|2002|p=74-75}}}} but also more pointly and non-metaphysically in the process-formula of the five skandhas:
# [[Jāti (Buddhism)|Birth]] is duḥkha, maturation is duḥkha, [[Jarāmaraṇa|aging]] is duḥkha, [[Byādhi (Buddhism)|illness]] is duḥkha, [[Jarāmaraṇa|death]] is duḥkha;
# Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are duḥkha;
# Association with the unbeloved is duḥkha; separation from the loved is duḥkha;
# Not getting what is wanted is duḥkha.
# In conclusion, the five clinging-aggregates ([[skandhas]]) are duḥkha.

Early emphasis is on the importance of developing insight into the nature of ''duḥkha'', the corrupted process of clinging and craving which starts with sense-contact, as described in the skandhas, and how this corruption can be overcome, namely by training the mind culminating in the process of the dhyanas. This is summarized in the teachings on the [[Four Noble Truths]] and other formulaic expressions of the [[Buddhist paths to awakening|Buddhist way]] to [[Awakening (Buddhism)|awakening]].

Within the Buddhist sutras, duḥkha has a broad meaning, and has also been specified in three categories:<ref>"What Are the Three Kinds of Suffering?"https://www.lionsroar.com/buddhism-by-the-numbers-the-three-kinds-of-suffering/</ref>
* ''Dukkha-dukkha'', aversion to physical suffering{{snd}} this includes the physical and mental sufferings of [[Jāti (Buddhism)|birth]], [[Jarāmaraṇa|aging]], [[Byādhi (Buddhism)|illness]], [[Jarāmaraṇa|dying]]; distress due to what is not desirable.
* ''Viparinama-dukkha'', the frustration of disappearing happiness{{snd}} this is the duḥkha of pleasant or happy experiences changing to unpleasant when the causes and conditions that produced the pleasant experiences cease.
* ''[[Sankhara]]-dukkha'', the unsatisfactoriness of changing and impermanent "things"{{snd}} the incapability of conditioned things to give us lasting happiness. This includes "a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all existence, all forms of life, because all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance."<ref>Bikkhu Bodhi, dead link</ref> On this level, the term indicates a lack of lasting satisfaction, or a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.