Editing Dartford Crossing (section)

===Queen Elizabeth II Bridge===
{{redirect|Queen Elizabeth II Bridge}}

[[File:Queen Elizabeth II Bridge - geograph.org.uk - 122668.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Each tower on the Queen Elizabeth II bridge is {{convert|137|m|ft}} high.]]

During the early 1980s, it was anticipated that traffic through the tunnel would rise on the completion of the M25 in 1986. At the time, the expectation was that other routes in London would be improved instead, diverting 15% of traffic away from the tunnel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dartford Tunnel |last=Chalker |first=Lynda |work=[[Hansard |Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |date=19 June 1984 |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/1984/jun/19/dartford-tunnel#S6CV0062P0_19840619_CWA_43 |access-date=2 July 2014}}</ref> In 1985, the Transport Minister, [[Lynda Chalker]], announced that the number of toll booths would be increased to 12 each way, but concern grew that two tunnels would not be able to cope with the full demands of a completed M25.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dartford Tunnel |last1=Townsend |first1=Cyril |last2=Bonsor |first2=Nicholas |last3=Chalker |first3=Lynda |work=[[Hansard |Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |date=21 October 1985 |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1985/oct/21/dartford-tunnel#S6CV0084P0_19851021_HOC_460 |access-date=2 July 2014}}</ref>

Between September 1985 and December 1986, proposals for improvements to the Dartford Crossing underwent several changes,{{sfn|H.M. Stationery Office|1989|p=30}} and in 1986, a [[Trafalgar House (company)|Trafalgar House]] consortium won a bid to build a new bridge at Dartford crossing, valued at £86 million (£{{inflation|UK-GDP|86|1986}} million in {{inflation/year|UK-GDP}}{{inflation/fn|UK-GDP}}).{{sfn|Banister|Berechman|2003|p=65}} At the time there were several other privately financed projects planned or under construction in the UK, including the [[Second Severn Crossing]]. From 1981 until the establishment of the [[private finance initiative]] (PFI) regime in the late 1980s, private investment projects were governed by the [[Ryrie Rules]] which dictated that "any privately-financed solution must be shown to be more cost-effective than a publicly-financed alternative, and that privately-financed expenditure by nationalised industries could not be additional to public expenditure provision" [annual budget], "which would be reduced by the amount of private finance borrowed."{{sfn|House of Lords: Select Committee on Economic Affairs|2010|p=9}}

{{anchor|Dartford-Thurrock Crossing Act 1988}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title           = Dartford-Thurrock Crossing Act 1988
| type                  = Act
| parliament            = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title            = An Act to provide for the construction of a bridge over the river Thames between Dartford in Kent and Thurrock in Essex and of associated works; to provide for the Secretary of State to be the highway authority for the highways passing through the tunnels under that river between Dartford and Thurrock and their approaches instead of Kent and Essex County Councils; to provide for the levying of tolls, by a person appointed by the Secretary of State or by the Secretary of State, in respect of traffic using the crossing; to provide for transfers of property and liabilities of those Councils to the person appointed and the Secretary of State and for the transfer to the Secretary of State of property and liabilities of the person appointed on termination of his appointment; to provide for the management of the crossing, including the imposition of prohibitions, restrictions and requirements in relation to traffic, and otherwise in relation to the crossing; and for connected purposes.
| year                  = 1988
| citation              = [[List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1988|1988]] c. 20
| introduced_commons    = 
| introduced_lords      = 
| territorial_extent    = 
| royal_assent          = 28 June 1988
| commencement          = 
| expiry_date           = 
| repeal_date           = 
| amends                = 
| replaces              = Dartford Tunnel Act 1984
| amendments            = 
| repealing_legislation = 
| related_legislation   = 
| status                = 
| legislation_history   = 
| theyworkforyou        = 
| millbankhansard       = 
| original_text         = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/20/contents/enacted
| revised_text          = 
| use_new_UK-LEG        = 
| UK-LEG_title          = Dartford-Thurrock Crossing Act 1988
| collapsed             = yes
}}
On 31 July 1988, a private finance initiative concession was enabled under the Dartford-Thurrock Crossing Act 1988 (c. 20), which transferred control of the crossing from Kent and Essex county councils to Dartford River Crossing Limited, a private company managed by Rodney Jones.{{sfn|The Institution|1992|p=10}} The company would also bear the debt of the bridge, then under construction, "financed 100% by debt, with no equity contribution".{{sfn|ITF|2013|p=42}}{{Efn|An alternative source says "near" 100% rather than 100% explicitly.{{sfn|Miller|Lessard|2001|p=177}}}} The private company was at risk of not recuperating their costs, but ultimately the Dartford scheme demonstrated that the Ryrie Rules were no longer a barrier to the private financing of public infrastructure projects.{{sfn|Hodge|Greve|Boardman|2010|p=529}} The concession was scheduled for 20 years from the transfer date, with a stipulation that it could end when debts had been paid off, which was agreed to have been achieved on 31 March 2002.{{sfn|HA|2014|p=5}} According to the ''International Handbook on Public-Private Partnership'', the chief financing for the project came from a "20-year subordinated loan stock, 16-year loan stock and £85 million (£{{inflation|UK-GDP|85|1988}} million in {{inflation/year|UK-GDP}}{{inflation/fn|UK-GDP}}) as a term loan from banks".{{sfn|Hodge|Greve|Boardman|2010|p=529}} The construction contract was let to a joint venture of [[Kværner]], [[Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company]] and the [[Cementation Company]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Queen Elizabeth II Bridge |publisher=Engineering Timelines |url=http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=105 |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref>

Construction of the bridge started immediately after the creation of the PFI in 1988.<ref name="ha_about">{{cite web |title=About the Crossing |publisher=Highways Agency |url=http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/managing-our-roads/improving-our-network/the-dartford-thurrock-river-crossing/about-the-crossing/ |access-date=2 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714153646/http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/managing-our-roads/improving-our-network/the-dartford-thurrock-river-crossing/about-the-crossing/ |archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> It was designed by German civil engineer {{Interlanguage link|Hellmut Homberg|de}}, with the UK's [[Halcrow Group]] acting as category 3 check engineer, employer's agent and engineering adviser.<ref name="Simpson-27Jun1991">{{cite news |last1=Simpson |first1=Jim |title=Dartford Bridge Supplement – Design Group Sir William Halcrow Has Many Roles in the Project. (1 of 2) |work=Construction News |date=27 June 1991 |url=https://www.constructionnews.co.uk/archive/28jun91-uk-dartford-bridge-supplement-design-group-sir-william-halcrow-has-many-roles-in-the-project-1-of-2-27-06-1991/ |access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> The two main [[Caisson (engineering)|caissons]] supporting the bridge piers were constructed in the Netherlands. Each caisson was designed to withstand a [[bridge strike]] of a ship weighing up to 65,000 tonnes and travelling up to {{convert|18.5|kph|mph}}<ref name="et">{{cite web |title=Queen Elizabeth II Bridge |publisher=Engineering Timelines |url=http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=105 |access-date=2 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714195958/http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=105 |archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref> The bridge deck is about {{convert|61|m|ft}} high, and it took a team of around 56 to assemble its structure. During construction of the approach road, a World War II bomb was found in its path, which required closure of the entire crossing.<ref name="pattison">{{cite news |title=The man who helped build the Dartford bridge |last=Pattison |first=Jo |work=BBC News |date=28 October 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-15467112 |access-date=6 July 2014}}</ref>

The bridge was opened by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] on 30 October 1991.{{sfn|TMA|2004|p=xiii}} The total cost of construction was £120&nbsp;million (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|120000000|1990|r=-4}}}} in {{inflation/year|UK-GDP}}{{Inflation/fn|UK-GDP}}), including £30 million (£{{inflation|UK-GDP|30|1991}} million in {{inflation/year|UK-GDP}}{{inflation/fn|UK-GDP}}) for the approach roads.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Bridge design stretched to the limits: Cable-stayed bridges are a type of suspended crossing. Spare but functional, they exploit a form of bridge engineering that is bringing down the cost of progressively longer crossings |journal=New Scientist |number=1792 |last=O'Neill |first=Bill |date=26 October 1991 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13217924.900-bridge-design-stretched-to-the-limits-cablestayed-bridgesare-a-type-of-suspended-crossing-spare-but-functional-they-exploit-a-formof-bridge-engineering-that-is-bringing-down-the-cost-of-progressively-longercrossings-.html |access-date=6 July 2014}}</ref> The proposed name had been simply the Dartford Bridge, but Thurrock residents objected and suggested the Tilbury Bridge, leading to a compromise.<ref name="pattison"/> At the time of opening, it had the longest cable-stayed span of any bridge in Europe.<ref name="et"/> It is the only bridge across the Thames downstream of Central London to be opened since [[Tower Bridge]] in 1894.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Dartford Crossing – Forerunner of the Private Finance Initiative |last=Bailey |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Bailey |publisher=Chartered Institute of Highways Engineers |url=http://motorwayarchive.ihtservices.co.uk/en/publication/visualisation--policy/part-8-direction-of-policy-towards-the-future/ |access-date=6 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714171210/http://motorwayarchive.ihtservices.co.uk/en/publication/visualisation--policy/part-8-direction-of-policy-towards-the-future/ |archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref>

{{Wide image|Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, Dartford, England - Feb 2009.jpg|800px|The Queen Elizabeth II Bridge as viewed from Greenhithe, {{cvt|1+1/2|mi|km|round=0.5}} east of the bridge in Kent|right}}