Editing Dagon (section)

== Worship ==
Dagan's primary cult centers were [[Tuttul]], where his clergy was likely involved in the traditional form of governance,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=303}} and Terqa (near Mari), where his temple ''E-kisiga'' ("the house, the silent place") was located.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=303}} The worship of Dagan evidently spread over a large area from these cities, even though its principal centers were not a major political power in their own right, a situation which according to Alfonso Archi can be compared to that of [[Hadabal]] (a 3rd millennium BCE god of the upper Orontes valley{{sfn|Archi|2015|p=35}}) and [[Hadad]] of [[Halab]].{{sfn|Archi|2010|p=4}} In addition to Tuttul and Terqa, settlements in which Dagan possessed a temple or shrine include [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], Subatūm (located in the proximity of the aforementioned city),{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=134}} Urah (on the left bank of the Euphrates),{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=136}} Hakkulân,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=139}} [[Saggarâtum|Šaggarātum]], Zarri-amnān,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=141}} Dašrah, Ida-Maras (in the Habur triangle), Admatum (a village in the kingdom of Ašlakkā),{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=142}} as well as Emar and various difficult to locate villages in its proximity.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=303}}

In Ebla, Dagan was usually referred to with titles such as "lord of Tuttul" (<sup>d</sup>BAD Du-du-lu<sup>ki</sup>) or "lord of the country" (<sup>d</sup>BAD KALAM<sup>TIM</sup>), but a phonetic spelling can be found in personal names.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=323}} References to him as Bel Terqa – "Lord of Terqa" – are known from Eblaite sources too.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=325}}{{sfn|Schwemer|2007|p=157}} Shalash was already regarded as his wife in this period.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=323}} Representatives of the city of [[Tell Brak|Nagar]] swore allegiance to the king of Ebla in the temple of Dagan in Tuttul,{{sfn|Archi|2015|p=627}} which was viewed as a neutral third party.{{sfn|Pongratz-Leisten|2012|p=98}} While certain other gods known from the Eblaite texts, such as Hadabal and [[Kura (deity)|Kura]], disappear from records after the fall of the city, Dagan's cult continued and retained its prestige.{{sfn|Archi|2015|p=589}}

In Mari, Dagan and Addu (Hadad) were protectors of the king and played a role in [[coronation|enthronement ceremony]].{{sfn|Schwemer|2007|p=156}} Multiple kings of Mari regarded Dagan as the source of their authority.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=325}} During the reign of [[Zimri-Lim]], Dagan was one of the gods who received the most offerings during festivals, with other deities comparably celebrated in official offering lists including the local dynasty's tutelary deity [[Itūr-Mēr]], [[Annunitum]], [[Nergal]], [[Shamash]], [[Enki|Ea]], [[Ninhursag]], Addu ([[Hadad]]) and Belet Ekalli ([[Ninegal]]).{{sfn|Nakata|2011|p=130}} In a letter Zimri-Lim's wife [[Shibtu|Šibtu]] enumerated Dagan, Shamash, Itūr-Mēr, Belet Ekalli and Addu as "the allies for me" and the deities who "go by my lord's side."{{sfn|Nakata|2011|p=131}} The Terqa temple was closely associated with Zimri-Lim.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=125}} A source from the period of his reign attests that to celebrate his coronation, a weapon was sent from Hadad's temple in Aleppo to Dagan's in [[Terqa]], likely to legitimize his rule.{{sfn|Feliu|1999|p=199}} It is possible that this ritual object represented the [[mace (bludgeon)|mace]] wielded by the [[weather god]] in his battle with the sea (analogous to the battle between [[Baal]] and [[Yam (god)|Yam]] in the [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]] [[Baal cycle]]).{{sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2015|p=40}} Despite the close connection between the clergy of Dagan from Terqa and Zimri-Lim, he was viewed unfavorably by the population of Tuttul and the presence of his officials was in at least one case regarded as a disturbance of Dagan's rites.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=125}}

In [[Emar]], Dagan was the most senior god in offering lists, preceding the weather god (Baal/Hadad) and the city god, whose name was written logographically as NIN.URTA.{{sfn|Schwemer|2008|p=14}} An important celebration dedicated to him in this location was so-called ''erēb Dagan'', "entry of Dagan."{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=122}} It took the form of a cultic journey of a statue, similar to celebrations of deities such as [[Lagamal]] or [[Belet Nagar]] attested in the same region.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=122}} He was also celebrated during the ''zukru'' festival.{{sfn|Yamada|2011|p=151}} Another festival dedicated to him known from documents from Emar was ''kissu'',{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=221}} which most likely took place in Šatappi, a city possibly located further south.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=220}} The precise meaning of the term ''kissu'' remains uncertain, making the nature of these celebrations, and roles of specific deities in them, difficult to ascertain.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=220}} It has been proposed that the presence of underworld deities – [[Shuwala]] and [[Ugur (god)|Ugur]] – indicates that it represented the periodic [[Dying-and-rising deity|death and return to life of a deity]], possibly Dagan's spouse, but this remains speculative.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|pp=221–222}}

Ḫammu-rāpi, who, around 1400&nbsp;BCE, ruled the area comprising the former independent [[Kingdom of Khana]], used the title "governor of [[Ilaba]] and Dagan."{{sfn|Nowicki|2016|p=74}}

Due to the scarcity of sources, the later history of Dagan's cult remains unclear; however, it is evident that he was no longer the head god of the upper Euphrates area in later times. The head of the [[Arameans|Aramean]] pantheon known from sources from the first millennium BCE was Hadad.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=305}}

=== Mesopotamian reception ===
Mesopotamian rulers saw Dagan as the lord of the western lands (e.g., ancient Syria) and thanked him for enabling their conquests in that area.{{sfn|Archi|2004|pp=322–323}} Inscriptions credit Dagan with granting [[Sargon of Akkad]] rule over the "Upper Land" and the cities of Ebla, Mari and Yarmuti in particular, as well as over areas as distant as the "cedar forest and silver mountains."{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=322}} To gain Dagan's favor, Sargon prayed to him in [[Tuttul]].{{sfn|Sallaberger|2007|p=424}} An inscription from the reign of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] describes inhabitants of the western frontier of his empire "as far as (the city of) Ulišum" as "people whom the god Dagan had given to him."{{sfn|Nowicki|2016|p=71}}

In Mesopotamian sources, Dagan is sometimes regarded as equal in rank to the great city gods of [[Sumer]] and [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]].{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=323}} One text uses the formula "[[Ishtar]] in [[Eanna]], [[Enlil]] in [[Nippur]], Dagan in Tuttul, [[Ninhursag]] in Kesh, [[Ea (Babylonian god)|Ea]] in [[Eridu]]."{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=323}}

In the [[Ur III period]], marriages between rulers of Syrian and Mesopotamian politites likely contributed to the spread of the worship of Dagan, as well other western deities like [[Išḫara|Ishara]] and Haburitum, in the south of Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=323}} In [[Nippur]], Dagan shared a temple with Ishara, first attested during the reign of [[Amar-Suen]]. Both deities were likely introduced from Mari and were linked only by their northwestern origin.{{sfn|Archi|2002|pp=29–30}} [[Ishbi-Erra]] of [[Isin]], assumed to be of Amorite origin{{sfn|Steinkeller|1982|p=293}} and described by [[Ibbi-Sin]] of [[Ur]] as "man of Mari" and "traveling rubbish salesman of non-[[Sumerians|Sumerian]] origin"{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=324}} frequently mentioned Dagan in documents.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=324}} Several of Ishbi-Erra's successors on the throne had [[theophory|theophoric]] names invoking Dagan, among them [[Iddin-Dagan]] and [[Ishme-Dagan]].{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=325}} They were also involved in restoring his temples in Isin and in Ur.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=325}} Some aspects of the syncretism between Dagan and Enlil seemingly can be attributed to this dynasty.{{sfn|Archi|2004|pp=324–325}}

A few of the early [[Amorite]] kings of [[Assyria]] mention Dagan in their inscriptions, for example [[Shamshi-Adad I]] called himself "worshipper of Dagan" in a document describing the expansion of the god's temple in Terqa.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=326}} Elsewhere he referred to himself as "beloved of Dagan."{{sfn|Pongratz-Leisten|2011|p=122}} An inscription of his son [[Yasmah-Adad]], however, refers to "Mullil [Enlil] (...) who dwells in Tuttul."{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=326}}

A ''šubtu'' (a type of shrine{{sfn|George|1992|p=435}}) of Dagan was located near Ka-ude-babbar,{{sfn|George|1992|p=393}} one of the gates of the [[Esagil]] temple complex in [[Babylon]].{{sfn|George|1992|p=11}}

[[Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)|Itti-Marduk-balatu]], a king from the Second Dynasty of Isin ([[middle Babylonian period]]), called himself Dagan's regent.{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=271}}

The [[Stela|stele]] of the 9th century BC Assyrian emperor [[Ashurnasirpal II]] refers to Ashurnasirpal as the favorite of [[An (mythology)|Anu]] and of Dagan.{{sfn|Pritchard|1969|p=558}} This phrase might, however, be simply a literary relic.{{sfn|Stone|2013}}

==== Mythology ====
In the Mesopotamian god list, ''An = Anum'', Dagan was placed in the circle of Enlil; this is similar to another western deity, Ishara.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=54}} The same document equates him with Enlil and his wife Shalash with [[Ninlil]].{{sfn|Archi|2015|p=634}}

There is some evidence that in Mesopotamia Dagan was connected with the poorly known tradition about conflict between the gods and [[Enmesharra]], for example a passage stating that "with Dagan's authority [gods] have been guarding Enmešarra from time immemorial" is known; Dagan might however be a synonym of Enlil rather than a distinct deity in this context according to [[Wilfred G. Lambert]].{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=286}}

The fragmentary myth ''Uraš and [[Marduk]]'' (here the [[Urash (god)|male god]] from [[Dilbat]], not the [[Urash|earth goddess]]) mentions Dagan, similarly most likely fully equated in this context with Enlil.{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=311}}

A legendary king of [[Purushanda]] who serves as an opponent of Sargon of Akkad in the epic [[King of Battle]] bears the name Nūr-Dagan.{{sfn|Lambert|2013|p=232}}

=== Ugarit ===
Evidence from the coastal city of [[Ugarit]] is inconclusive. Whether a temple initially often identified as Dagan's was dedicated to him rather than [[El (deity)|El]] is a matter of scholarly debate.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=105}}

In lists of gods and offerings from Ugarit, Dagan sometimes follows El but precedes Baal.{{sfn|Schwemer|2008|p=10}} Two such examples are known, but in six Dagan follows El and Baal.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=328}} An incantation against [[snakebite]] mentions Dagan alongside Baal, while El is paired with [[Haurun|Horon]].{{sfn|del Olmo Lete|2013|p=198}}

Dagan appears in six theophoric names known from Ugarit, and possibly in a seventh under the logographic spelling <sup>d</sup>KUR; for comparison [[Baal]] appears in 201, with further 36 using the form Haddu.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=99}} For comparison, in known documents from Mari Hadad appears in 159 names, while Dagan in 138.{{sfn|Nakata|1995|p=252}} However, only 17% of known names from Ugarit are theophoric, which makes it difficult to tell how representative are they when it comes to estimating the popularity of some deities.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=97}} Additionally, many gods prominent in texts from Ugarit, including Anat, are uncommon in personal names, while the Mesopotamian god [[Ea (Babylonian god)|Ea]] (under a phonetic spelling of the name, which makes it impossible he was a logographic stand-in for local god [[Kothar-wa-Khasis]]) appeared frequently in them.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=106}}

==== Dagan, El, and Baal's parentage ====
Dagan plays no active role in Ugaritic myths (such as the [[Baal cycle]]), though Baal is frequently referred to as his "son" or "lineage."{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=328}} In the poem ''Marriage of [[Nikkal]] and [[Yarikh]]'' he is referred to as "Dagan of Tuttul," possibly indicating that he was viewed as a foreign god by Ugaritic scribes.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=328}}

It has been argued by [[Joseph Fontenrose]] in an article from 1957 that, whatever their deep origins, at Ugarit, Dagan was sometimes identified with [[El (deity)|El]], explaining why Dagan, who possibly had an important temple at Ugarit is so neglected in the [[Ras Shamra]] mythological texts, where he is merely the father of Baal, but [[Anat]], El's daughter, is Baal's sister, and why no temple of El has appeared at Ugarit.{{sfn|Fontenrose|1957|pp=277–279}} More recent research shows that evidence for identification of Dagan with El is at best indirect.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=301}} In god lists El was equated with Hurrian [[Kumarbi]] and Mesopotamian [[Enlil]]{{sfn|Güterbock|1983|pp=325–326}} rather than directly with Dagan. Alfonso Archi notes in some texts both appear separately, but also that Dagan was extraneous to the theology of Ugarit.{{sfn|Archi|2004|p=329}}

Other recent studies provide various other approaches to the problem of Baal's parentage in mythical texts. Daniel Schwemer proposes that the epithet "Son of Dagan" applied to Baal in Ugaritic texts was influenced by Syrian and Hurrian tradition.{{sfn|Schwemer|2008|p=14}} Noga Ayali-Darshan states that the portrayal of the relationship between El and Baal in the Baal cycle is similar to that between Kumarbi and [[Teshub]] in the Kumarbi cycle, and that in the Hellenized Phoenician tradition recorded by [[Philo of Byblos]] Demarous (Baal) has both a biological father ("[[Ouranos]]") and a step-father (Dagon) - both of them distinct from Elos (El; in this Phoenician myth a brother of Dagon). She also notes that due to the circumstances of his birth, Teshub had two fathers: one opposing him and one who supported his rise to power. She suggests that therefore it is not necessarily contradictory that two separate gods were regarded as Baal's fathers, though she assumes both in Ugarit and in Phoenician beliefs Dagan/Dagon was merely an element introduced from the culture of inland Syria and played no significant role himself.{{sfn|Ayali-Darshan|2013|pp=651–657}} Aaron Tugendhaft considers Baal an outsider who is not a member of the family of El and [[Athirat]] in the beginning of the narrative and thus not their son by birth, but merely a brother of their children in the sense known from Bronze Age diplomatic texts. He argues that much as allied kings referred to each other as "brothers", so did the gods in Ugaritic myths.{{sfn|Tugendhaft|2012|pp=89–104}}

=== Iron Age Phoenicia ===
The [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] inscription on the sarcophagus of King Eshmunʿazar of [[Sidon]] (5th century BC) relates: "Furthermore, the Lord of Kings gave us Dor and [[Jaffa, Israel|Joppa]], the mighty lands of Dagon, which are in the Plain of [[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]], in accordance with the important deeds which I did."{{sfn|Pritchard|1969|p=662}} However, said king built no temples dedicated to Dagon in his city, and this god appears only in an insignificant role in the treaty between [[Esarhaddon]] and king [[Baal I]] of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]].{{sfn|Singer|1992|p=439}} It is therefore doubtful if he was prominent in [[Phoenician religion]].{{sfn|Singer|1992|p=439}}