Editing Constantine II of Scotland (section)

== Æthelstan ==
{{see also|Æthelstan's invasion of Scotland}}

By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged [[Æthelstan]] as overlord, adopting [[Christianity]] and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at [[Tamworth, Staffordshire|Tamworth]]. Within the year he appears to have forsaken his new faith and repudiated his wife, but before Æthelstan could respond, Sihtric died suddenly in 927. His kinsman, perhaps brother, [[Gofraid ua Ímair|Gofraid]], who had remained as his deputy in [[Dublin]], came from [[Ireland]] to take power in [[York]] but failed. Æthelstan moved quickly, seizing much of [[Northumbria]]. In less than a decade, the [[kingdom of the English]] had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland, perhaps stretching as far north as the [[Firth of Forth]].<ref>Higham, ''Kingdom of Northumbria'', pp. 186–190; Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 339–340; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp.148–151; Swanton, ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', pp. 105 and 107, Ms. D, s.a. 925, 926, Ms. E, F, s.a. 927.</ref>

John of Worcester's chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine, [[Owain ap Dyfnwal (fl. 934)|Owain]], and the Welsh kings. [[William of Malmesbury]] writes that Gofraid, together with Sihtric's young son [[Olaf Cuaran]] fled north and received refuge from Constantine, which led to war with Æthelstan. A meeting at [[Eamont Bridge]] on 12 July 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine, Owain, [[Hywel Dda]], and Ealdred would "renounce all idolatry": that is, they would not ally with the Viking kings. William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine, probably [[Indulf]] ([[Ildulb mac Constantín]]), during the conference.<ref>Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 66–67; Swanton, ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', p.107, Ms. D, s.a. 926; Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 339–340; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp 150–152, 192–193; Smyth, ''Warlords and Holy Men'', pp. 201–202; Miller, "Æthelstan".</ref>

Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings.<ref>Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 340–341.</ref> For the next seven years, the record of events in the north is blank. Æthelstan's court was attended by the Welsh kings, but not by Constantine or Owain. This absence of record means that Æthelstan's reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear.<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 161–165. The previous year had seen the death of Æthelstan's brother [[Edwin (son of Edward the Elder)|Edwin]], perhaps drowned on the king's orders; Swanton, ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', p. 107, Ms. E, s.a. 933 and note 11; Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 355–356. The following year Gofraid died and was succeeded by his son Amlaíb, Constantine's son-in-law; ''Annals of Ulster'', s.a. 934. Finally, the ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' report the death of "Adulf mcEtulfe, king of the North Saxons" in the same year as Æthelstan's campaign; Woolf suggests that this represents Ealdred, or some other son of Eadulf, ruling in Northumbria.</ref>

Æthelstan's invasion is reported in brief by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and later chroniclers such as [[John of Worcester]], [[William of Malmesbury]], [[Henry of Huntingdon]] and [[Symeon of Durham]] add detail to that bald account. Æthelstan's army began gathering at [[Winchester]] by 28 May 934 and travelled north to [[Nottingham]] by 7 June. He was accompanied by many leaders, including the [[Wales in the early Middle Ages|Welsh kings]] [[Hywel Dda]], [[Idwal Foel]] and [[Morgan ab Owain]]. From Mercia, the army continued to [[Chester-le-Street]], before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships. Owain was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as [[Dunnottar]] and [[Fortriu]], while the fleet is said to have raided [[Caithness]], by which a much larger area, including [[Sutherland]], is probably intended. It is unlikely that Constantine's personal authority extended so far north, so the attacks were probably directed at his allies, comprising simple looting expeditions.<ref>Swanton, ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', p. 107, Ms. D, s.a. 934; Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 67–69; Miller, "Æthelstan"; Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', p. 342; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 160–166; Smyth, ''Warlords and Holy Men'', p. 203.</ref>

The ''[[Annals of Clonmacnoise]]'' state that "the Scottish men compelled [Æthelstan] to return without any great victory", while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition. A negotiated settlement might have ended matters: according to John of Worcester, a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantine himself accompanied the English king on his return south. He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at [[Buckingham]] on 13 September 934 in which he is described as ''subregulus'', ''i.e.'', a king acknowledging Æthelstan's overlordship, the only place there is any record of such a description.<ref>Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 426; Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 67–69; Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 166–168; {{cite web|url=http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=get&type=charter&id=426 |title=Charter S 426 |last=Miller |first=Sean |work=Anglo-Saxons.net |access-date=28 November 2007}}</ref> However, there is no record of Constantine having ever submitted to Æthelstan's overlordship or that he considered himself such. The following year, Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan's court, this time at [[Cirencester]] where he appears as a witness, as the first of several kings, followed by Owain and Hywel Dda, who subscribed to the diploma.<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 166–168; only a part of this charter survives, see {{cite web |url=http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/kemble/pelteret/Lsp/Lsp%2011.htm |access-date=28 November 2007 |title=Charter S 1792 |work=Anglo-Saxon Charters Website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227002745/http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/kemble/pelteret/Lsp/Lsp%2011.htm |archive-date=27 February 2009}}</ref> At Christmas of 935, Owain was once more at Æthelstan's court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not. His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances.<ref>Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba'', pp. 167–168.</ref>