Editing Confucius (section)

==Philosophy==
{{Confucianism}}
{{Main|Confucianism}}

In the ''[[Analects]]'', Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the [[Chinese character]] for study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or [[Religious formalism|formalist]] theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they can capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become a [[Junzi|perfect man]]. For example, the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals|Annals]]'' would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events; the ''[[Shi Jing|Book of Odes]]'' reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners and their view on government; while the ''[[I Ching|Book of Changes]]'' encompasses the key theory and practice of divination.{{Sfn|Oldstone-Moore|2003|p=34–37}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Topics on Asia for Educators {{!}}{{!}} The Book of Songs and China's Literary Tradition |url=https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at/song/song04.html |access-date=2024-07-03 |website=afe.easia.columbia.edu}}</ref>

Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Berger|first=Peter|url=http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|title=Is Confucianism a Religion?|magazine=The American Interest|date=February 15, 2012|access-date=August 13, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817062142/http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|archive-date=August 17, 2015}}</ref> Confucius was considered more of a humanist than a spiritualist,{{sfn|Chan|1969|p=14–15}} his discussions on [[afterlife]] and views concerning [[Tian|Heaven]] remained indeterminate, and he is largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of [[Chinese soul|souls]].<ref>{{cite journal| first = D. Howard| last = Smith|jstor =3269371| title = Chinese Concepts of the Soul | journal = Numen | volume = 5| issue = 3| pages = 165–179 | doi= 10.2307/3269371 | publisher= Brill 
| date = September 1958}}</ref>

===Ethics===
{{Main|Confucian ethics}}
[[File:Rongo Analects 02.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Analects]]'']]
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of [[virtue ethics]]. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through [[allusion]], [[innuendo]], and even [[tautology (rhetoric)|tautology]]. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

{{blockquote|
{{lang|zh|廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。| size = 110% }}

When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.|''Analects'' X.11 (tr. [[Arthur Waley|Waley]]), 10–13 (tr. [[James Legge|Legge]]), or X-17 (tr. [[D.C. Lau|Lau]])}}

This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism.{{sfn|Chan|1969|p=36}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Confucius |author-link=Confucius |title=The analects: the Simon Leys translation, interpretations |date=2014 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-91195-4 |editor-last=Nylan |editor-first=Michael |location=New York, NY |translator-last=Leys |translator-first=Simon|pages=Note to Chapter 10, Line 10.17}}</ref>

One of his teachings was a variant of the [[Golden Rule]], sometimes called the "[[Silver Rule]]" owing to its negative form:

{{blockquote|
{{lang|zh|子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。| size = 110% }}

Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself."|''Analects'' XV.24, tr. David Hinton}}

Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in ''[[Li (Confucian)|lǐ]]'' ({{lang|zh|禮}}) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that ''lǐ'' originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of ''lǐ'' through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of ''lǐ'' seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.{{sfn|Gardner|2014|p=25-29}}

In the early Confucian tradition, ''lǐ'' was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the ''lǐ'' of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when ''lǐ'' must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

In Confucianism, the concept of ''li'' is closely related to ''yì'' ({{lang|zh|義}}), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. ''Yì'' can be translated as [[righteousness]], though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of [[selfishness|self-interest]] or profitableness ({{lang|zh|利}}). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of ''yì'' is doing the right thing for its own sake, without regarding the material gains.{{sfn|Fung|1952|pp=74-76}}

Just as action according to ''[[Li (Confucian)|lǐ]]'' should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to ''yì'', so ''yì'' is linked to the core value of ''rén'' ({{lang|zh|仁}}). ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|Rén]]'' consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness.<ref name="Bonevac09-40">{{Harvnb|Bonevac|Phillips|2009|loc=40}}.</ref> ''Rén'' is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator [[Arthur Waley]] calls it "Goodness" (with a capital ''G''), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon [[empathy]] and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of ''rén'' so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of ''yì''. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little.<ref name="Bonevac09-40" />

===Politics===
Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (''lǐ'') and morality, and ''not'' by using incentives and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (''Analects'' 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays the role of institutions in guiding behavior as in [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], emphasizing moral virtues instead.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Haiwen |date=2011 |title=Confucianism and the Legalism: A model of the national strategy of governance in ancient China |journal=Frontiers of Economics in China |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=616–637 |doi=10.1007/s11459-011-0150-4 |issn=1673-3444|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/81944/1/MPRA_paper_81944.pdf }}{{better source needed|date=September 2024|reason= this is an interesting toy model of governance priorities that probably has some good insights if we accept its propositions, but it's not really about this topic at all. this should be trivial to cite for people who read general histories / popular press / outdated research}}</ref>

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the [[Mandate of Heaven]] ({{lang|zh|天命}}) that could unify the "world" ({{lang|zh|天下}}, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to the well-being of their people, striving to be a role model in virtue and ritual, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and edicts.{{sfn|Gardner|2014|p=36-37}}

In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.<ref>{{cite web|last=Violatti|first=Cristian|url=http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/|title=Confucianism|publisher=World History Encyclopedia|date=August 31, 2013|access-date=August 17, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818150049/http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/|archive-date=August 18, 2015}}</ref>

===Music and poetry===
{{Main|Ritual and music system}}
[[File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|thumb|left|The ''Shijing'' or ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'']]
[[Music]] was one of the [[Six Arts|six arts]] that students needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a partner to music, the purpose of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Koto from the series The Six Arts in Fashionable Guise|url=https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1985.301|publisher=Cleveland Museum of Art|date=2024-01-21}}</ref> Unlike other philosophers around the world, Confucius viewed music and [[music theory]] beyond a mere art form or curriculum subject, and stated that it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man. <blockquote>"Music is that which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects man
on the external. Music brings about harmony. Rites ensure obedience."</blockquote> To Confucius, music created the focus necessary to unite and harmonize man. Thus, music and rites together were more than beneficial but were to make people act in a manner compatible with heaven and earth.<ref name="kirkendall">{{Cite web|last=Kirkendall|first=Jensen Armstrong|title=The Well Ordered Heart: Confucius on Harmony, Music, and Ritual|url=https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|publisher=Azusa Pacific University|date=2017-12-14 |access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045728/https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The scholar [[Li Zehou]] argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth." Therefore, the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.<ref name=kirkendall/>

The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the {{em|[[Classic of Poetry|Shijing or Classic of Poetry]]}} and the {{em|[[Classic of Music]]}}, which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the [[Han dynasty]]. The {{em|Classic of Poetry}} serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as poems meant for folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school.<ref>{{citation
  |title = The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse
  |editor-first = Albert Richard |editor-last = Davis
  |location = Baltimore |publisher = Penguin Books |year = 1970
  |postscript = 
  }}</ref> In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of poetry in the intellectual and moral development of an individual:<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17">{{Cite web|title=Confucius, The Analects – 17|url=https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17|date=1901-12-13|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045737/https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cai |first=Zong-qi |date=July 1999 |title=In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry  |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=317–345 |doi=10.2307/1399898 |jstor=1399898 <!-- requires url, but for the fans: |access-date=2021-04-13 -->}}</ref>
{{poemquote|The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the {{em|Book of Poetry}}?
{{Em|The Odes}} serve to stimulate the mind.
They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation.
They teach the art of sociability.
They show how to regulate feelings of resentment.
From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince.
From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17"/>}}Confucians in later generations had conservative and mixed views on international musical influences encroaching on China, in particular those with varying styles that did not traditionally accompany rites, and some preached against sentimental tendencies from the [[Persians]], the [[Greco-Bactrians]], and the [[Mongols]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |author-link=Will Durant |title=Our Oriental Heritage: Being a History of Civilization in Egypt and the Near East to the Death of Alexander, and in India, China and Japan from the Beginning to Our Own Day; With an Introduction, on the Nature and Foundations of Civilization |title-link=The Story of Civilization#I. Our Oriental Heritage (1935) |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1954 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/storciviliz00dura/page/n823/mode/1up 723]}}</ref>