Editing Christianity and Judaism (section)

==Right action==

===Faith versus good deeds===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2018}}
{{See also|Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification|Biblical law in Christianity}}
Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities{{who|date= November 2018}} see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the [[Shema Yisrael]], the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways.

Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy.

Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform [[good works]], but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called [[Legalism (theology)|Legalism]], the exception being [[dual-covenant theology]]. Some Christian denominations{{which|date= November 2018}} hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus, which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that [[Sola fide|faith alone]] is necessary for salvation. Some{{who|date= November 2018}} argue that the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the [[Faith in Christianity|definition of "faith" used]]. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission". Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see [[Ontotheology]]). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "[[sola fide]]") define faith as being implicitly [[ontological]]—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition.

===Sin===
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{{Main|Jewish views of sin|Christian views on sin}}
In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called [[sin]]. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds.

Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called [[venial sin]]; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called [[mortal sin]]. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter [[Hell]] in the [[afterlife]]. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula", a spiritual stain or uncleanliness that constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God.

Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word ''pesha'', or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word ''aveira'' means "transgression". And the word ''avone'', or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", ''het'', literally means "to go astray". Just as Jewish law, ''halakha'' provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with [[free will]], and morally neutral, with both a ''[[yetzer hatov]]'', (literally, "the good inclination", in some views,{{which|date= November 2018}} a tendency towards goodness, in others{{which|date= November 2018}}, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a ''[[yetzer hara]]'', (literally "the evil inclination", in some views,{{which|date= November 2018}} a tendency towards evil, and in others,{{which|date= November 2018}} a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible—only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person)

The rabbis recognize a positive value to the ''yetzer hara'': one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will.

In contrast to the Jewish view of being morally balanced, [[Original Sin]] refers to the idea that the sin of [[Adam and Eve]]'s disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. Paul the Apostle in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter.

Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants{{who|date= November 2018}} teach the Sacrament of [[Baptism]] is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and [[sanctifying grace]] (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit", following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received.

===Love===
{{Main|Jewish theology of love|Great Commandment|Agape}}
The Hebrew word for "love", ''ahavah'' (אהבה), is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in [[Song of Songs]]. Christians will often use the Greek of the Septuagint to make distinctions between the types of love: ''[[philia]]'' for brotherly, ''[[Eros (concept)|eros]]'' for romantic and ''[[agape]]'' for self-sacrificing love.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calvin.edu/~jks4/city/Oord~Defining+Love.pdf|title=James K.A. Smith|publisher=Calvin College}}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, literary critic Harold Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the second [[Great Commandment]]. Talmudic sages Hillel and [[Rabbi Akiva]] commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature.<ref>See Bamberger 1981: 737</ref> [[Bernard Jacob Bamberger]] considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy"—to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter.

===Abortion===
{{Main|Judaism and abortion|Christianity and abortion|Ensoulment#Judaism}}
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The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty.<ref>Exodus 21: 22–25</ref><ref>Daniel Schiff, 2002, ''Abortion in Judaism'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 9–11</ref> (Although this interpretation is disputed,{{according to whom|date=October 2021}} the passage could refer to an injury to a woman that causes a premature, live birth).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion—in restricted circumstances—has always been legal under Jewish law. [[Rashi]], the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus ''lav nefesh hu'': "it is not a person". The Talmud contains the expression ''ubar yerech imo''—the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud [[Yevamot]] 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the [[quickening]] of the fetus.

Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact [[Pikuach nefesh|mandates]], abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her, and their Rabbi.

===War, violence and pacifism===
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{{main|Christian pacifism}}
Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences.

Judaism has many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (i.e., makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people.

Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see [[Masada]], [[History of the Jews in France#First persecution of the Jews|First French persecution of the Jews]], and [[York Castle]] for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name".<ref>See: ''[[Martyrdom]]''</ref> These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm|title=Judaism and Euthanasia|access-date=16 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506200930/http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm|archive-date=6 May 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic [[morality|moral]] [[dilemma]] of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance.

The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must [[turn the other cheek]]. This has led four Protestant Christian denominations to develop a [[Christian pacifism|theology of pacifism]], the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the ''[[peace churches]]'', and have incorporated Christ's teachings on [[Nonviolent resistance|nonviolence]] into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], and the [[Church of the Brethren]]. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also [[Evangelical counsels]]. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also [[But to bring a sword]].

===Capital punishment===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2009}}
{{Further|Religion and capital punishment}}
Although the [[List of capital crimes in the bible|Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment]], the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a [[Sanhedrin|Jewish court]] to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the [[Cities of Refuge]] and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those [[manslaughter|unintentionally guilty]] of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such.

Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for [[Christian heresy|heresy]], the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and [[witchcraft]] or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those [[Crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jews]] who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral.

===Taboo food and drink===
{{Main|Taboo food and drink|Kashrut}}
Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been [[Supersessionism|superseded]]. For example, they cite what Jesus taught in [[Mark 7]]: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean—although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. [[Eastern Orthodoxy#Fasting|Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting]], and continues to observe the [[Council of Jerusalem]]'s apostolic decree of Act 15.<ref>[[Karl Josef von Hefele]]'s [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html commentary on canon II of Gangra] notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of [[Gangra]], the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. [[Balsamon]] also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third [[Canons of the Apostles|Apostolic Canon]], expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] in his work [[Contra Faustum]], where he states that the Apostles had given this command to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, [[Pope Gregory III|Pope Gregory the Third]] (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical Synods]], can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."</ref>

Some Christian denominations observe some biblical food laws, for example, the practice of [[Ital]] in [[Rastafari]]. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] do not eat blood products and are known for their refusal to accept [[blood transfusion]]s based on not "eating blood".