Editing Chinese Indonesians (section)

=== Loyalty in question (1950–1966) ===

[[File:Collectie NMvWereldculturen, TM-60042230, Foto- Winkelen in een Chinese wijk in een stad, Java, 1940-1950.jpg|thumb|right|230px|
Shopping street in the Chinese districts on Java island, circa 1940–1950]]

The Netherlands relinquished its territorial claims in the archipelago (with the exception of [[West Papua (region)|West Papua]]) following the [[Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference|1949 Round Table Conference]]. In the same year that the [[Kuomintang]] retreated to Taiwan, allowing the [[Chinese Communist Party]] to take control of mainland China. Most Chinese Indonesians considered a communist China less attractive than a newly independent Indonesia, but in the archipelago their loyalties were questioned. Ethnic Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies whose parents were [[Domicile (law)|domiciled]] under Dutch administration were regarded as citizens of the new state according to the principle of ''[[jus soli]]'' (lit., right of the soil).{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=8}} However, Chinese law considered a person as a Chinese citizen according to the principle of ''[[jus sanguinis]]'' (lit., right of blood). This meant that all Indonesian citizens of Chinese descent were also claimed as citizens by the People's Republic of China. After several attempts by both governments to resolve this issue, Indonesia and China signed a [[Sino-Indonesian Dual Nationality Treaty|Dual Nationality Treaty]] on the sidelines of the 1955 [[Asian–African Conference]] in [[Bandung]]. One of its provisions permitted Indonesians to renounce Chinese citizenship if they wished to hold Indonesian citizenship only.{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=9}}

{{quote box
| quote  = They had thought they were unwanted in Southeast Asia because they were Chinese; then they were rejected in China because they were Indonesian.
| width  = 25%
| align  = left
| source =&nbsp;—[[Charles Coppel]]{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=337}}
}}

As many as 390,000 ethnic Chinese, two-thirds of those with rightful claims to Indonesian citizenship, renounced their Chinese status when the treaty came into effect in 1962.{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=9}} On the other hand, an estimated 60,000 ethnic Chinese students left for the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s.{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=336}} The first wave of students were almost entirely educated in Chinese-language schools, but were not able to find opportunities for tertiary education in Indonesia. Seeking quality scientific professions, they entered China with high hopes for their future and that of the mainland.{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=337}} Subsequent migrations occurred in 1960 as part of a repatriation program and in 1965–1966 following a series of [[Indonesian killings of 1965–1966|anti-communist violence]] that also drew anger toward the ethnic Chinese. As many as 80% of the original students who entered the mainland eventually became refugees in Hong Kong.{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=336}} During China's [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976), [[Red Guards]] questioned the loyalty of the returned overseas Chinese because of their foreign connections.{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=357}} They were attacked as "imperialists", "capitalists", "spies", "half-breeds", and "foreign devils".{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=337}}As most had grown up in an urban environment they were sent to the countryside, told to "rebel against their own class background", and eventually lost contact with their families.{{sfn|Coppel|2002|p=350}}

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Glodok wijk te Djakarta TMnr 10014951.jpg|thumb|alt=Crowd at a busy street intersection. There are horse-drawn carriages in the foreground while a three-story building (with the sign "Kam Leng") and a single story building (with the sign "Chunghua Bioscoop") stand in the background on adjacent corners of the intersection.|Busy activity in [[Glodok]] chinatown, [[Jakarta]], 1953. Restrictions on rural non-indigenous retail businesses in 1959 led to rapid urbanization of the ethnic Chinese community.{{sfn|Suryadinata|2008|p=11}}]]

In 1959, following the introduction of soft-[[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule through [[Guided Democracy in Indonesia|Guided Democracy]], the Indonesian government and military began placing restrictions on [[Alien (law)|alien]] residence and trade. These regulations culminated in the enactment of [[PP 10/1959|Presidential Regulation 10]] in November 1959, banning retail services by non-indigenous persons in rural areas. Ethnic Chinese, [[Arab Indonesians|Arab]], and Dutch businessmen were specifically targeted during its enforcement to provide a more favorable market for indigenous businesses.{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=11}} This move was met with protests from the Chinese government and some circles of Indonesian society. Javanese writer [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] later criticized the policies in his 1961 book ''[[Hoakiau di Indonesia]]''. An [[Racial integration|integrationist]] movement, led by the Chinese-Indonesian organisation [[Baperki]] (''{{lang|id|Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia}}''), began to gather interest in 1963, including that of President [[Sukarno]]. However, a series of attacks on ethnic Chinese communities in [[West Java]] in May proved it to be short-lived, despite the government's condemnation of the violence.{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=13}} When Baperki was branded a communist organization in 1965 the ethnic Chinese were implicated by association; this was exacerbated in the public mind by the People's Republic of China's communism. As many as 500,000 people, the majority of them Javanese [[Abangan]] Muslims and Balinese Indonesians but including a minority of several thousand ethnic Chinese, were killed in [[Indonesian killings of 1965–1966|the anti-communist purge]]{{efn|{{harvtxt|Purdey|2006|p=14}} writes that, as ethnic Chinese constituted two percent of Indonesia's population at the time, a similar number of Chinese Indonesians may have been killed in the purges. She qualifies this, however, by noting that most of the killings were in rural areas, while the Chinese were concentrated in the cities.}}  which followed the [[G30S|failed coup d'état]], suspected as being communist-led, on 30 September 1965.{{sfn|Purdey|2006|p=14}}

Dayaks were tricked by the Indonesian military into attacking Chinese. The land the Chinese fled from was not taken by Dayaks but by Madurese settlers, who were later massacred by the Dayaks.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hului |first=Patricia |date=12 October 2020 |title=Mangkok Merah 1967, the Dayak-Chinese conflict in Kalimantan |url=https://kajomag.com/mangkok-merah-1967-the-dayak-chinese-conflict-in-kalimantan/ |magazine=Kajo Mag |location= }}</ref> Dayaks and Malays killed and raped Madurese throughout 1996, 1997, 1999 and 2001.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hului |first=Patricia |date=19 September 2019 |title=The Dayak-Madurese conflicts in Kalimantan, and what led up to them |url=https://kajomag.com/the-dayak-madurese-conflicts-in-kalimantan-and-what-led-up-to-them/ |magazine=Kajo Mag |location= }}</ref>