Editing Chinese Civil War (section)

== <span class="anchor" id="Second phase"></span> Resumed fighting (1946–1949) ==
{{further|Chinese Communist Revolution}}

=== Background and disposition of forces ===
{{Infobox
|title = Resumed fighting (1946–1949)
|data1 =
{{Infobox Chinese|child = yes
|name1 = Name in mainland China
|l = Third National Revolutionary War
|s = 第三次国内革命战争
|t = 第三次國內革命戰爭
|p = Dìsāncì guónèi gémìng zhànzhēng
|altname = Second name in mainland China
|l2 = War of Liberation
|t2 = 解放戰爭
|s2 = 解放战争
|p2 = Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng
|wuu2 = Chia-fhon-tsan-zen
|j2 = Gaai2 fong3 zin3 zang1
|poj2 = Kái-hòng chiàn-cheng
|altname3 = Name in Taiwan
|l3 = Anti-Communist Rebellion Suppression War
|t3 = 反共戡亂戰爭
|s3 = 反共戡乱战争
|p3 = Fǎngòng kānluàn zhànzhēng
|altname4 = Third name in mainland China
|l4 = Chinese People's Liberation War
|s4 = 中国人民解放战争
|t4 = 中國人民解放戰爭
|p4 = Zhōngguó rénmín jiěfàng zhànzhēng
}}
}}

By the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the power of the Chinese Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2&nbsp;million troops, backed with additional militia of 2&nbsp;million, totalling 3.2&nbsp;million troops.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=36}} Their "Liberated Zone" in 1945 contained 19 base areas,<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=36}} including one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002">{{cite book |title=Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại |last=Nguyễn Anh Thái |author2=Nguyễn Quốc Hùng |author3=Vũ Ngọc Oanh |author4=Trần Thị Vinh |author5=Đặng Thanh Toán |author6=Đỗ Thanh Bình |year=2002 |publisher=Giáo Dục |location=Ho Chi Minh City |id=8934980082317 |pages=320–322 |language=vi}}</ref>

In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the [[Soviet Red Army]] under the command of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria, while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them, which led to full-scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard-line faction who wanted a complete military take-over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists.<ref>Michael M Sheng, ''Battling Western Imperialism'', Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135</ref> Before giving control to Communist leaders, on 27 March, Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.<ref>{{cite book |last=Liu |first=Shiao Tang |title=Min Kuo Ta Shih Jih Chih |volume=2 |year=1978 |publisher=Zhuan Chi Wen Shuan |location=Taipei |page=735 |language=zh}}</ref>

Although [[George Marshall|General Marshall]] stated that he knew of no evidence that the CCP was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CCP was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks. When large numbers of well-trained KMT troops began to defect to the Communist forces, the CCP was finally able to achieve material superiority.<ref>''The New York Times'', 12 January 1947, p. 44.</ref><ref>Zeng Kelin, ''Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu'' (General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997. pp. 112–113</ref> The CCP's most effective political reform was its land reform policy. This drew the massive number of landless and starving peasants in the countryside into the Communist cause.<ref>[[Ray Huang]], ''cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji'' (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's diary from a macro-history perspective), China Times Publishing Press, Taipei, 1994, pp. 441–443</ref> This strategy enabled the CCP to access an extensive supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes; despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war's campaigns, manpower continued to grow. For example, during the [[Huaihai Campaign]] alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.<ref>[[Lung Ying-tai]], ''dajiang dahai 1949'', Commonwealth Publishing Press, Taipei, 2009, p. 184</ref>

[[File:National Revolutionary Army planes.png|thumb|Nationalist warplanes being prepared for an air raid on Communist bases]]

After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai-shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002"/> The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the [[Northeast China|Northeast]] (Manchuria). President [[Harry S. Truman]] was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists". In his memoirs he writes:

{{blockquote|It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] to guard the seaports. |sign = President Truman<ref>Harry S Truman, ''Memoirs'', Vol. Two: "Years of Trial and Hope, 1946–1953" (Great Britain 1956), p. 66</ref>}}

Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender", business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" /> They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" />

[[Hyperinflation]] meant those employed in the Kuomintang forces lost the purchasing power of their pay.<ref name="Coble2023" />{{Rp|204}} This resulted in corruption and the embezzlement of supplies which disappeared into the barter economy.<ref name="Coble2023" />{{Rp|204}} Ordinary Kuomintang soldiers were often malnourished and desertion was common.<ref name="Coble2023" />{{Rp|204}}

The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in [[Operation Beleaguer]]. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist-controlled areas.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" /> According to [[William Blum]], American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.<ref>p. 23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London.</ref> Within less than two years after the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43&nbsp;billion from the US{{snd}}most of which was military aid.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" /> Highlighting the aid provided by the US to the KMT, the Communists' position was that the US was stirring domestic warfare and characterized the civil war as both a national revolution against the KMT and a revolution against US colonization and aggression.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Hongshan |title=Fighting on the Cultural Front: U.S.–China Relations in the Cold War |year=2024 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-20705-8 |location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|14}}

=== Outbreak of war ===
<gallery widths="200px" heights="180px">
File:Chaing Kai-shek's Strategy 1947.PNG|Situation in 1947
File:Communist Offensives September through November 1948.PNG|Situation in the fall of 1948
File:Communist Offensives November 1948 - January 1949.PNG|Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949
File:Communist Offensives April - October 1949.PNG|Situation in April to October 1949
</gallery>

As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government and the CCP failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in [[mainland China]] and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" ({{zh |s = 解放战争 |p = Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng |links = no }}). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in [[North China]] with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6&nbsp;million troops).<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" />

Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12&nbsp;million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" />

[[File:North China Areas of Politico-military Control, 15 August 1947 - DPLA - 1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg|thumb|North China areas of politico-military control in August 1947]]
[[File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg|thumb|The PLA enters Beiping in the [[Pingjin Campaign]]]]
[[File:Lost Horizon? (1948).jpg|thumb|Map of the Far East from the Time magazine showing the situation of the Chinese Civil War in late 1948]]

In March 1947, the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing Yan'an, the capital of the [[Yan'an Soviet]].<ref>Lilley, James R. ''China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia''. {{ISBN|1-58648-136-3}}.</ref> The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards. With KMT efforts for an all-out offensive failing, the Nationalists changed strategy from broad assaults to concentrating on key targets, including Communist-controlled areas in Shandong and Shaanxi.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=56}} This approach also failed.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=56}}

From June to September 1947, the Communists launched offensives and Nationalist-controlled areas became the primary battlefields.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=56}} On 30 June 1947, CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the [[Dabie Mountains]] area, restored and developed the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]]. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002" />

The period of August 1948 through October 1949 included the three most significant Communist military campaigns of the civil war: the [[Liaoshen campaign|Liaoshen Campaign]] (northeast China), [[Huaihai campaign|Huaihai Campaign]] (east China), and [[Pingjin campaign|Pingjin Campaign]] (Beijing-Tianjin).<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}}

The Liaoshen campaign was launched on 12 September 1948 and led by [[Lin Biao]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} The main focus of the campaign was Jinzhou.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} On 14 October, the Communists launched an all-out assault and captured the city in 24 hours.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} Most of the 90,000 Nationalists casualties in this battle were incorporated into the Communist ranks.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} The [[siege of Changchun]] ended on 19 October when the Nationalist garrison surrendered.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} On 1 November, the Communists captured [[Shenyang]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} By late 1948, the CCP had taken control of the Northeast through the decisive Liaoshen Campaign.<ref name="Westad2003">Westad, Odd Arne. (2003). ''Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-4484-X}}. pp. 192–193.</ref> 

[[File:Renault FT-17 in ROC.jpg|thumb|right|[[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] FT tanks]]
The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948, the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.<ref name="Elleman">Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-21473-4}}.</ref> Following a fierce battle, the CCP captured [[Jinan]] and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. During this period, [[Battle of Weixian]] took place, which was an important battle for the CCP to liberate Shandong. Through the Weixian Campaign, the CCP controlled the Jiaoji Railway and cut off the connection between Jinan and Qingdao. 

The Huaihai Campaign of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CCP.<ref name="Westad2003" /> It was the largest military operation of the civil war.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=57}} A large number of KMT troops deserted and changed sides in these conflicts.<ref name="Coble2023" />{{Rp|204}} The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.<ref name="Westad2003" />

The [[Pingjin Campaign|Pingjin campaign]] lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.<ref name="Finkelstein">Finkelstein, David Michael. Ryan, Mark A. McDevitt, Michael. (2003). ''Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949''. M. E. Sharpe. China. {{ISBN|0-7656-1088-4}}. p. 63.</ref> The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing [[Zhangjiakou]], Tianjin along with its port and garrison at [[Taku Forts|Dagu]] and [[Beijing|Beiping]].<ref name="Finkelstein" /> The CCP brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops.<ref name="Elleman" /> There were 40,000 CCP casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.<ref name="Finkelstein" /> The KMT's defeat in the Pingjin campaign ended its ability to be an effective fighting force on the mainland.<ref name=":02" />{{RP|page=58}}

[[File:ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg|thumb|The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost [[Nanjing]] they next moved to [[Guangzhou]], then to [[Chongqing]], [[Chengdu]] and finally, [[Xichang]] before arriving [[Taipei]] in 1949.]]

After achieving decisive victory through the Liaoshen, Huaihai, and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54&nbsp;million [[veteran]] KMT troops.<ref name="Đỗ Thanh Bình2002"/><ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=58}} 

Stalin initially favored a [[coalition government]] in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.<ref>Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." ''Cold War History'' 10.2 (2010): 185–202.</ref> Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, began the [[Yangtze River Crossing Campaign]]. On 23 April, they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing.<ref name="Zhang2002" /> The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until 15 October, [[Chongqing]] until 25 November, and then Chengdu before [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreating to Taiwan]] on 7 December. By late 1949, the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only [[Tibet]] was left. A Chinese Muslim [[Hui people|Hui]] cavalry regiment, the 14th [[Dungan people|Tungan]] Cavalry, was sent by the Kuomintang to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the [[Pei-ta-shan Incident]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims |title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 |first=Andrew D. W. |last=Forbes |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-25514-7 |pages=215, 225 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use [[Kham]]pa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the [[Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama|Panchen Lama]] to oppose the Communists.<ref>{{harvnb|Lin|2010|p=117}}: "China's far northwest. A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China."</ref> Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.{{sfn|Lin|2010|p=xxi}}

=== Pushing south ===
{{See also|Proclamation of the People's Republic of China}}

On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|officially proclaimed the People's Republic of China]] with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated from mainland China]] to the [[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] in December after the PLA advanced into Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the [[Chengdu Campaign|fall of Chengdu]] on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.<ref>Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. (2005). ''The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-34584-7}}. p. 376.</ref>

[[File:Hainan Island Campaign.png|thumb|Communist [[Battle of Hainan Island|conquest of Hainan Island]] in mid 1950]]

A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of [[Kinmen|Quemoy]] was thwarted in the [[Battle of Guningtou|Battle of Kuningtou]], halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.<ref>Qi, Bangyuan. Wang, Dewei. Wang, David Der-wei. (2003). ''The Last of the Whampoa Breed: Stories of the Chinese Diaspora''. Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-13002-3}}. p. 2.</ref> In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the [[temporary capital]] of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.

The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the [[Landing Operation on Hainan Island|Communist conquest of Hainan Island]] in April 1950, the [[Wanshan Archipelago Campaign|Wanshan Islands]] off the Guangdong coast (May–August 1950), and [[Zhoushan Island]] off Zhejiang (May 1950).<ref>MacFarquhar, Roderick. Fairbank, John K. Twitchett, Denis C. (1991). ''The Cambridge History of China''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24337-8}}. p. 820.</ref>