Editing Catatonia (section)

=== Medical conditions ===
Catatonia is also seen in many medical disorders, including encephalitis, [[meningitis]], [[autoimmune disorder]]s,<ref name=Rogers19>{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Jonathan P |last2=Pollak |first2=Thomas A |last3=Blackman |first3=Graham |last4=David |first4=Anthony S |date=July 2019 |title=Catatonia and the immune system: a review |journal=The Lancet Psychiatry |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=620–630 |doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30190-7 |pmc=7185541 |pmid=31196793}}</ref> focal neurological lesions (including [[stroke]]s),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haroche |first1=Alexandre |last2=Rogers |first2=Jonathan |last3=Plaze |first3=Marion |last4=Gaillard |first4=Raphaël |last5=Williams |first5=Steve CR |last6=Thomas |first6=Pierre |last7=Amad |first7=Ali |date=July 2020 |title=Brain imaging in catatonia: systematic review and directions for future research |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10110277/ |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=1585–97 |doi=10.1017/S0033291720001853 |pmid=32539902 |s2cid=219704600}}</ref> alcohol withdrawal,<ref name="Geoffroy-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Geoffroy |first1=Pierre Alexis |last2=Rolland |first2=Benjamin |last3=Cottencin |first3=Olivier |date=1 May 2012 |title=Catatonia and Alcohol Withdrawal: A Complex and Underestimated Syndrome |journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=288–290 |doi=10.1093/alcalc/agr170 |pmid=22278315 |doi-access=free}}</ref> abrupt or overly rapid [[Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome|benzodiazepine withdrawal]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosebush PI |author2=Mazurek MF |date=August 1996 |title=Catatonia after benzodiazepine withdrawal |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=315–9 |doi=10.1097/00004714-199608000-00007 |pmid=8835707}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Deuschle M, Lederbogen F |date=January 2001 |title=Benzodiazepine withdrawal-induced catatonia |journal=Pharmacopsychiatry |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=41–42 |doi=10.1055/s-2001-15188 |pmid=11229621 |s2cid=260241781}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kanemoto K, Miyamoto T, Abe R |date=September 1999 |title=Ictal catatonia as a manifestation of de novo absence status epilepticus following benzodiazepine withdrawal |journal=Seizure |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=364–6 |doi=10.1053/seiz.1999.0309 |pmid=10512781 |s2cid=17454162 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[cerebrovascular disease]], [[neoplasm]]s, [[head injury]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction" /> and some metabolic conditions ([[homocystinuria]], [[diabetic ketoacidosis]], [[hepatic encephalopathy]], and [[hypercalcaemia]]).<ref name="DSM-5-introduction" />

==== Neurological disorders ====
Catatonia can occur due to a number of neurological conditions. For instance, certain types of [[encephalitis]] can cause catatonia. Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is a form of autoimmune encephalitis which is known to cause catatonia in some people. Additionally, encephalitis has been reported to cause catatonia in people who have encephalitis due to [[HIV]] and [[herpes simplex virus]] (HSV). The research is limited, but some evidence suggests that people can develop catatonia after traumatic brain injury without a primary psychiatric disorder.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berthelot |first1=Jessica |last2=Cambre |first2=Jacob |last3=Erwin |first3=Madeline |last4=Phan |first4=Jennifer |date=2024-03-06 |editor-last=Inada |editor-first=Toshiya |title=Catatonia as a Result of a Traumatic Brain Injury |journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry |language=en |volume=2024 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1155/2024/5184741 |doi-access=free |issn=2090-6838 |pmc=10937075 |pmid=38482162}}</ref> Similarly, there are several case reports suggesting that people have experienced catatonia after a stroke, with some people having catatonia-associated symptoms that were unexplainable by their stroke itself, and which improved after treatment with [[benzodiazepine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koprucki |first1=Shawna |last2=Morcos |first2=Roy |date=2024-09-18 |title=Acute Catatonia Following a Cerebellar Stroke: A Case Report |journal=Cureus |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=e69645 |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.69645 |doi-access=free |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=11488475 |pmid=39429282}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hasan |first1=H. |last2=Abdo |first2=M. |last3=Rabei |first3=S. |date=March 2023 |title=Post Cerebrovascular Stroke Catatonic Psychosis: A Case Report |journal=European Psychiatry |language=en |volume=66 |issue=S1 |pages=S1058 |doi=10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2245 |issn=0924-9338 |pmc=10479261}}</ref> [[Parkinson's disease]] can cause catatonia for some people by impairing their ability to produce and secrete [[dopamine]], a neurotransmitter which is thought to contribute to motor dysfunction in people with catatonia.

==== Metabolic and endocrine disorders ====
Abnormal [[thyroid]] function can cause catatonia when the thyroid overproduces or underproduces thyroid hormones. This is thought to occur due to thyroid hormones impact on metabolism including in the cells of the nervous system. Abnormal electrolyte levels have also been shown to cause catatonia in rare cases. Most notably, low levels of sodium in the blood can cause catatonia in some people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McGuire |first1=Eimear |last2=Yohanathan |first2=Mythily |last3=Lally |first3=Leona |last4=McCarthy |first4=Geraldine |date=2017-07-14 |title=Hyponatraemia-associated catatonia |journal=BMJ Case Reports |language=en |pages=bcr–2017–219487 |doi=10.1136/bcr-2017-219487 |issn=1757-790X |pmc=5534696 |pmid=28710304}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peritogiannis |first1=Vaios |last2=Rizos |first2=Dimitrios V. |date=2021-05-24 |title=Catatonia Associated with Hyponatremia: Case Report and Brief Review of the Literature |url=https://clinical-practice-and-epidemiology-in-mental-health.com/VOLUME/17/PAGE/26/ |journal=Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=26–30 |doi=10.2174/1745017902117010026 |issn=1745-0179 |pmc=8227445 |pmid=34249136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=Vishal |last2=Sharma |first2=Akhya |last3=Sharma |first3=Chandra Bhushan |last4=Guria |first4=Rishi Tuhin |date=December 2021 |title=Cerebral Salt Wasting Induced Hyponatraemia Presenting as Catatonia |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.4997/jrcpe.2021.413 |journal=Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh |language=en |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=377–9 |doi=10.4997/jrcpe.2021.413 |pmid=34882138 |issn=1478-2715}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krueger |first1=Anna |last2=Shebak |first2=Shady S. |last3=Kavuru |first3=Bush |date=2015-11-12 |title=Catatonia in the Setting of Hyponatremia |url=https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/catatonia-setting-hyponatremia/ |journal=The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders |language=English |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=26803 |doi=10.4088/PCC.15l01808 |pmid=27057405 |pmc=4805406 |issn=2155-7780}}</ref>

==== Autoimmune disorders ====
As discussed previously, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is a form of autoimmune encephalitis which can cause catatonia. Additionally, autoimmune diseases that are not exclusively neurological can cause neurological and psychiatric symptoms including catatonia. For instance, [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] can cause catatonia and is thought to do by causing inflammation in the blood vessels of the brain or possibly by the body's own antibodies damaging neurons. {{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

==== Infectious diseases ====
Certain types of infections are known to cause catatonia either through directly impairing brain function or by making a person more likely to contract diseases that impair brain function. HIV and [[AIDS]] can cause catatonia, most likely by predisposing one to infections in the brain, including different types of viral encephalitis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Volkow |first1=N D |last2=Harper |first2=A |last3=Munnisteri |first3=D |last4=Clother |first4=J |date=1987-01-01 |title=AIDS and catatonia. |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=104 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.50.1.104-a |issn=0022-3050 |pmc=1033262 |pmid=3819740}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hisamoto |first1=Yoshimi |last2=Gabriel |first2=Genevieve |last3=Verma |first3=Sonam |last4=Karakas |first4=Cemal |last5=Chari |first5=Geetha |date=2017-04-18 |title=Catatonia as a rare manifestation of HIV associated psychosis in adolescents. (P6.208) |url=https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.88.16_supplement.P6.208 |journal=Neurology |language=en |volume=88 |issue=16_supplement |doi=10.1212/WNL.88.16_supplement.P6.208 |issn=0028-3878}}</ref> ''[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]'' causes [[Lyme disease]], which has been shown to cause catatonia by infecting the brain and causing encephalitis.<ref name=Rogers19/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pfister |first1=H.-W. |last2=Preac-Mursic |first2=V. |last3=Wilske |first3=B. |last4=Rieder |first4=G. |last5=Förderreuther |first5=S. |last6=Schmidt |first6=S. |last7=Kapfhammer |first7=H.-P. |date=February 1993 |title=Catatonic syndrome in acute severe encephalitis due to Borrelia burgdorferi infection |url=https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.43.2.433 |journal=Neurology |language=en |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=433–5 |doi=10.1212/WNL.43.2.433 |pmid=8437717 |issn=0028-3878}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neumärker |first1=K. J. |last2=Dudeck |first2=U. |last3=Plaza |first3=P. |date=February 1989 |title=[Borrelia encephalitis and catatonia in adolescence] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2716930 |journal=Der Nervenarzt |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=115–9 |issn=0028-2804 |pmid=2716930}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Lenzie |last2=Tufts |first2=Danielle M. |date=2021-06-15 |title=Lyme Neuroborreliosis: Mechanisms of B. burgdorferi Infection of the Nervous System |journal=Brain Sciences |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=789 |doi=10.3390/brainsci11060789 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-3425 |pmc=8232152 |pmid=34203671}}</ref>

==== Pharmacological causes ====
Use of NMDA receptor antagonists including [[ketamine]] and [[phencyclidine]] (PCP) can lead to catatonia-like states. Information about these effects has improved scientific understanding of the role of [[glutamate]] in catatonia. High dose and chronic use of stimulants such as [[cocaine]] and [[amphetamines]] can lead to cases of catatonia, typically associated with [[psychosis]]. This is thought to be due to changes in the function of circuits of the brain associated with dopamine release.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}