Editing Bald eagle (section)

==Diet and feeding==
The bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey. Fish often comprise most of the eagle's diet throughout their range.<ref name="LPZBaldEagle">{{cite web |url=http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/bald-eagle |title=Bald Eagle Fact Sheet, Lincoln Park Zoo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531195236/http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/bald-eagle |archive-date=May 31, 2012 |website=Lpzoo.org |date=February 2, 1900 |access-date=August 22, 2012}}</ref> In 20 food habit studies across the species' range, fish comprised 56% of the diet of nesting eagles, birds 28%, mammals 14% and other prey 2%.<ref name="Stalmaster">{{cite book |last1=Stalmaster |first1=M.V. |year=1987 |title=The Bald Eagle |publisher=Universe Books |location=New York}}</ref> More than 400 species are known to be included in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, far more than its ecological equivalent in the Old World, the [[white-tailed eagle]], is known to take. Despite its considerably lower population, the bald eagle may come in second amongst all North American accipitrids, slightly behind only the [[red-tailed hawk]], in number of prey species recorded.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref name= Sherrod2>{{cite journal |last1=Sherrod |first1=S. K. |year=1978 |title=Diets of North American Falconiformes |journal=Raptor Res |volume=12 |issue=3/4 |pages=49–121}}</ref><ref name= Collins>{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=P. W. |last2=Guthrie |first2=D. A. |last3=Rick |first3=T. C. |last4=Erlandson |first4=J. M. |year=2005 |title=Analysis of prey remains excavated from an historic bald eagle nest site on San Miguel Island, California |journal=Proceedings of the Sixth California Islands Symposium |location=Arcata, CA |publisher=Institute for Wildlife Studies |pages=103–120}}</ref>

===Behavior===
[[File:Bald Eagle and salmon.jpg|Juvenile with [[salmon]], [[Katmai National Park and Preserve|Katmai National Park]]|thumb]]
To hunt fish, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its [[talons]]. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish. [[Osprey]]s also have this adaptation.<ref name="Terres"/> Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight, with prey up to the size of [[Canada goose|Canada geese]] attacked and killed in mid-air.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> It has been estimated that the bald eagle's grip (measured as newtons per square meter, or pounds per square inch) is ten times stronger than that of a human.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gripping Strength of an Eagle – Understanding psi 101 |publisher=Hawkquest |access-date=July 20, 2012 |url=http://www.hawkquest.org/TA/XL/Gripping.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.hawkquest.org/TA/XL/Gripping.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight, but if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle may be dragged into the water. Bald eagles can swim, but in some cases, they drag their catch ashore with their talons. Still, some eagles drown or succumb to [[hypothermia]].<ref name="Potts1999">{{cite book |last=Potts |first=Steve |title=The Bald Eagle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uBUsVf9h5cUC&pg=PA17 |access-date=July 12, 2016 |year=1999 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-7368-8483-9 |page=17}}</ref> Many sources claim that bald eagles, like all large eagles, cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions.<ref name="FPL"/><ref name="Gill"/> On numerous occasions, when large prey such as large fish including mature salmon or geese are attacked, eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored, low flight over the water to a bank, where they then finish off and dismember the prey.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref name= Sherrod2/> When food is abundant, an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop. Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable.<ref name="FPL"/> Occasionally, bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey, especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons, with one bird distracting potential prey, while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it.<ref name= Cornell/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Edwards |first1=C.C. |year=1969 |title=Winter behavior and population dynamics of American eagles in Utah |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Brigham Young University |location=Provo, UT |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/7677/ |hdl=1877/Letd163}}</ref><ref name=j25/> While hunting waterfowl, bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly, hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught (white-tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way). When hunting concentrated prey, a successful catch often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully.<ref name="BNA"/>

They obtain much of their food as [[carrion]] or via a practice known as [[kleptoparasitism]], by which they steal prey away from other predators. Due to their dietary habits, bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans.<ref name="Travsky"/> Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience, adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles, which often obtain their food from scavenging.<ref name="Todd"/><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Harmata |first1=A. R. |year=1984 |title=Bald Eagles of the San Luis valley, Colorado: their winter ecology and spring migration |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Montana State University |location=Bozeman |url=https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/8600}}</ref> They are not very selective about the condition or origin, whether provided by humans, other animals, auto accidents or natural causes, of a carcass's presence, but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence. They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though carcasses of [[ungulate]]s and large fish are seemingly preferred.<ref name="BNA"/> Congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffin |first1=C. R. |first2=T. S. |last2=Baskett |first3=R. D. |last3=Sparrowe |year=1982 |title=Ecology of Bald Eagles wintering near a waterfowl concentration |series=Special Scientific Report - Wildlife |volume=247 |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps (dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska)<ref name="Sherrod"/> and fish-processing plants.<ref name="peregrinefund.org">{{Cite web|url=https://peregrinefund.org/explore-raptors-species/eagles/bald-eagle|title=Bald Eagle &#124; The Peregrine Fund|website=peregrinefund.org}}</ref>

===Fish===
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus in flight 2cr.jpg|thumb|right|In flight with freshly caught fish]]
[[File:31 White-headed Eagle.jpg|thumb|left|Feeding on catfish and other various fishes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Audubon |first=John James |date=1840 |title=White-headed or bald Eagle, ''Haliaetus leucocephalus'', Linn. [Pl. 14] |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/319127 |journal=The Birds of America: From Drawings Made in the United States and Their Territories |volume=1 |pages=57––64 |doi=10.5962/p.319127}}</ref> Painted by [[John James Audubon]]]]
In [[Southeast Alaska]], fish comprise approximately 66% of the year-round diet of bald eagles and 78% of the prey brought to the nest by the parents.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Eagles living in the [[Columbia River Estuary]] in [[Oregon]] were found to rely on fish for 90% of their dietary intake.<ref name="Watson2"/>  At least 100 species of fish have been recorded in the bald eagle's diet.<ref name= Sherrod2/> From observation in the Columbia River, 58% of the fish were caught alive by the eagle, 24% were scavenged as carcasses and 18% were pirated away from other animals.<ref name="Watson2"/>

In the [[Pacific Northwest]], spawning [[trout]] and [[salmon]] provide most of the bald eagles' diet from late summer throughout fall.<ref name="Alaska"/> Though bald eagles occasionally catch live salmon, they usually scavenge spawned salmon carcass.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robards |first1=Fredrick C. |first2=Allan |last2=Taylor |first3=Allan |last3=Dwight |title=Bald Eagles in Alaska |year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kalmbach |first1=E. R. |first2=Ralph H. |last2=Imler |first3=Lee W. |last3=Arnold |title=The American eagles and their economic status |year=1964}}</ref> Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on [[pink salmon]] (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), [[coho salmon]] (''O. kisutch'') and, more locally, [[sockeye salmon]] (''O. nerka''), with [[Chinook salmon]] (''O. tshawytscha'').<ref name="Armstrong"/> Due to the Chinook salmon's large size ({{convert|12|to|18|kg|lb|abbr=on}} average adult size) probably being taken only as carrion and a single carcass can attract several eagles.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are [[Pacific herring]] (''Clupea pallasii''), [[sand lance|Pacific sand lance]] (''Ammodytes hexapterus'') and [[eulachon]] (''Thaleichthys pacificus'').<ref name="Armstrong"/> In Oregon's Columbia River Estuary, the most significant prey species were [[largescale sucker]]s (''Catostomus macrocheilus'') (17.3% of the prey selected there), [[American shad]] (''Alosa sapidissima''; 13%) and [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio''; 10.8%).<ref name="Watson2"/> Eagles living in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] in [[Maryland]] were found to subsist largely on [[American gizzard shad]] (''Dorosoma cepedianum''), [[threadfin shad]] (''Dorosoma petenense'') and [[white bass]] (''Morone chrysops'').<ref name="Mersmann"/> Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on [[catfish]], most prevalently the [[brown bullhead]] (''Ameiurus nebulosus'') and any species in the genus ''[[Ictalurus]]'' as well as [[mullet (fish)|mullet]], [[trout]], [[needlefish]], and [[American eel|eel]]s.<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="FPL"/><ref name=j5/> [[Chain pickerel]]s (''Esox niger'') and [[white sucker]]s (''Catostomus commersonii'') are frequently taken in interior [[Maine]].<ref name = 'Todd.'>{{cite journal |last1=Todd |first1=C. S. |display-authors=et al |title=Food habits of bald eagles in Maine |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |year=1982 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=636–645 |doi=10.2307/3808554 |jstor=3808554}}</ref> Wintering eagles on the [[Platte River]] in [[Nebraska]] preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp.<ref name=j15/> Bald eagles are also known to eat the following fish species: [[rainbow trout]] (''Oncorhynchus mykiss''), [[white bullhead|white catfish]] (''Ameiurus catus''), [[rock greenling]] (''Hexagrammos lagocephalus''), [[Pacific cod]] (''Gadus macrocephalus''), [[Atka mackerel]] (''Pleurogrammus monopterygius''), [[largemouth bass]] (''Micropterus salmoides''), [[northern pike]] (''Esox lucius''), [[striped bass]] (''Morone saxatilis''), [[dogfish shark]] (''Squalidae.sp'') and [[Blue walleye]] (''Sander vitreus'').<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Haliaeetus_leucocephalus/ |title=''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'' (Bald eagle) |website=[[Animal Diversity Web]]}}</ref><ref name = 'Thomas C'>{{cite journal |first1=Thomas C. |last1=Dunstan |first2=James F. |last2=Harper |year=1975 |title=Food Habits of Bald Eagles in North-Central Minnesota |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.2307/3800476 |jstor=3800476}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'>{{cite book |last=Beans |first=Bruce E. |title=Eagle's Plume: The Struggle to Preserve the Life and Haunts of America's Bald Eagle |year=1996 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-80696-9 |oclc=35029744 |url=https://archive.org/details/eaglesplumestrug00bean}}</ref>

Fish taken by bald eagles varies in size, but bald eagles take larger fish than other piscivorous birds in North America, typically range from {{convert|20|to|75|cm|in|abbr=on}} and prefer {{convert|36|cm|in|abbr=on}} fish.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=Allyson |display-authors=etal |title=Mercury risk to avian piscivores across western United States and Canada |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=568 |year=2016 |pages=685–696 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.197 |pmid=26996522 |pmc=5461577 |bibcode=2016ScTEn.568..685J}}</ref> When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around [[Lake Britton]] in California, fish measuring {{convert|34|to|38|cm|in|abbr=on}} were taken 71.8% of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring {{convert|23|to|27.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} were chosen only 25% of the time.<ref name="Jenkins"/> At nests around [[Lake Superior]], the remains of fish (mostly [[Catostomus|suckers]]) were found to average {{convert|35.4|cm|in|abbr=on}} in total length.<ref name="Kozie"/> In the Columbia River estuary, most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure less than {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}}, but larger fish between {{convert|30|and|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} or even exceeding {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length also taken especially during the non-breeding seasons.<ref name="Watson2"/> They can take fish up to at least twice their own weight, such as large mature [[salmon]]s, [[carp]]s, or even [[muskellunge]] (''Esox masquinongy''), by dragging its catch with talons and pull toward ashore.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref>{{cite web |title=St. Croix surprise: Bald eagle reels in large muskie |url=https://www.twincities.com/2019/08/15/st-croix-surprise-bald-eagle-reels-in-large-muskie/ |publisher=Pioneer Press |date=August 16, 2019 |access-date=August 9, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bald Eagle Catching Salmon 8598 |url=http://www.digital-images.net/Gallery/Wildlife/Studies/Raptors/Eagles/Brackendale/brackendale.html |publisher=The Brackendale and Yellowstone page |access-date=February 10, 2023}}</ref> Much larger marine fish such as [[Pacific halibut]] (''Hippoglossus stenolepis'') and [[lemon shark]]s (''Negaprion brevirostris'') have been recorded among bald eagle prey though probably are only taken as young, as small, newly mature fish, or as carrion.<ref name= Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ofelt |first1=C. H. |year=1975 |title=Food habits of nesting Bald Eagles in southeast Alaska |journal=The Condor |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=337–338 |doi=10.2307/1366232 |jstor=1366232}}</ref>

[[Benthic zone|Benthic fishes]] such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface, though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards.<ref name="Mersmann"/> Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered, stunned or dead fish easily consumed.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Delong |first=D. C. Jr. |year=1990 |title=Effects of food on Bald Eagle distribution and abundance on the northern Chesapeake Bay: an experimental approach |type=MS thesis |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/41925 |hdl=10919/41925}}</ref> Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill, such as [[brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos''), [[Gray wolf|gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus'') and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes''), may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily.<ref name="Armstrong"/> Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning, usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively. Eagles in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] need to consume {{convert|489|g|lb|abbr=on}} of fish each day for survival, with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter.<ref name=Stalmaster1/>

===Birds===
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald Eagle) 32.jpg|thumb|left|Bald eagle attacking an [[American coot]]]]
Behind fish, the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other [[Water bird|waterbirds]]. The contribution of such birds to the eagle's diet is variable, depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water's surface. Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7% to 80% of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities.<ref name="Watson2"/><ref name="Brisbin Jr.Mowbray2002"/> Overall, birds are the most diverse group in the bald eagle's prey spectrum, with 200 prey species recorded.<ref name= Palmer/><ref name= Sherrod2/><ref name= Collins/>

Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium-sized, such as [[western grebe]]s (''Aechmophorus occidentalis''), [[mallard]]s (''Anas platyrhynchos''), and [[American coot]]s (''Fulica americana'') as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with.<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="Watson2"/> American herring gull (''Larus smithsonianus'') are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around [[Lake Superior]].<ref name="Kozie"/> [[American black duck|Black duck]]s (''Anas rubripes''), [[common eider]]s (''Somateria mollissima''), and [[double-crested cormorant]]s (''Phalacrocorax auritus'') are also frequently taken in coastal [[Maine]]<ref name = 'Todd.'/> and [[velvet scoter]] (''Melanitta fusca'') was dominant prey in [[San Miguel Island]].<ref name='Erlandson.'>{{cite journal |last1=Erlandson |first1=Jon M. |display-authors=et al |title=Archaeological implications of a bald eagle nesting site at Ferrelo Point, San Miguel Island, California |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=255–271 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.05.002 |bibcode=2007JArSc..34..255E}}</ref>

[[File:Look out! (7172187224).jpg|thumb|right|A bald eagle prepares to pick off a common murre from Colony Rock in Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon, United States.]]
Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense against eagles by such species, bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages, from eggs to mature adults, and they can effectively cull large portions of a colony.<ref name="Henderson"/> Along some portions of the North Pacific coastline, bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly [[kelp]]-dwelling fish and supplementally [[sea otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'') pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish (possibly due to overfishing) and otters (cause unknown) have had steep population declines, causing concern for seabird conservation.<ref name="sciencedaily"/> Because of this more extensive predation, some biologist has expressed concern that [[murre]]s are heading for a "conservation collision" due to heavy eagle predation.<ref name="Henderson"/> Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active, burrow-nesting seabird species such as [[storm petrel]]s and [[shearwater]]s by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside.<ref name="Nocturnal"/> If a bald eagle flies close by, waterbirds will often fly away en masse, though they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle in other cases. when the birds fly away from a colony, this exposes their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as [[gull]]s.<ref name="Henderson"/>

While they usually target small to medium-sized seabirds, larger seabirds such as [[great black-backed gull]]s (''Larus marinus'') and [[northern gannet]]s (''Morus bassanus'') and [[brown pelican]]s (''Pelecanus occidentalis'') of all ages can successfully be taken by bald eagles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/330/articles/behavior |title=Great Black-backed Gull- Behavior- Birds of North America Online |author=Good, T.P. |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=January 7, 2013}}</ref><ref>Mowbray, Thomas B. "Northern Gannet — Behavior". Birds of North America Online. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved October 17, 2011</ref><ref>Shields, M. (2020). Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.brnpel.01</ref> Similarly, large waterbirds are occasionally killed. Geese such as wintering [[Emperor goose|emperor geese]] (''Chen canagica'') and [[snow goose|snow geese]] (''C. caerulescens''), which gather in large groups, sometimes becoming regular prey.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name="Gill"/> Smaller [[Ross's goose|Ross's geese]] (''Anser rossii'') are also taken, as well as large-sized [[Canada goose|Canada geese]] (''Branta canadensis'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graves |first1=Gary R. |title=Bald Eagle Swims to Shore with Ross's Goose |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=54 |issue=1 |year=2020 |pages=84–85 |doi=10.3356/0892-1016-54.1.84 |s2cid=214260050}}</ref><ref name="Mersmann"/> Predation on the largest subspecies (''Branta canadensis maxima'') has been reported.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bartley |first1=John |title=Bald Eagle kills and carries Giant Canada Goose |journal=Blue Jay |volume=46 |issue=2 |year=1988 |doi=10.29173/bluejay4868 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other large waterbird prey include [[common loon]]s (''Gavia immer'') of all ages.<ref>Windels, S. K., Beever, E. A., Paruk, J. D., Brinkman, A. R., Fox, J. E., Macnulty, C. C., ... & Osborne, D. C. (2013). Effects of water‐level management on nesting success of common loons. The Journal of wildlife management, 77(8), 1626–1638.</ref> Large wading birds can also fall prey to bald eagles. For the [[great blue heron]]s (''Ardea herodias''), bald eagles are their only serious enemies of all ages.<ref name="Stalmaster"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forbes |first=L. Scott |date=1987 |title=Predation on Adult Great Blue Herons: Is It Important? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1521242 |journal=Colonial Waterbirds |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=120–122 |doi=10.2307/1521242 |jstor=1521242}}</ref> Slightly larger [[Sandhill crane]]s (''Grus canadensis'') can be taken as well.<ref name="Wood"/> While adult [[whooping crane]]s (''Grus americana'') are too large and formidable, their chicks can fall prey to bald eagles.<ref name=b4/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=Gretchen A. |display-authors=et al |title=Postmortem evaluation of reintroduced migratory whooping cranes in eastern North America |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=45 |issue=1 |year=2009 |pages=29–40 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-45.1.29 |pmid=19204333 |s2cid=36783957 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2009JWDis..45...29C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rabbe |first1=Matthew R. |first2=Andrew J. |last2=Caven |first3=Joshua D. |last3=Wiese |title=First description of a Bald Eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') attempting depredation on an adult Whooping Crane (''Grus americana'') of the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population |journal=Monographs of the Western North American Naturalist |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2019 |pages=24–32}}</ref> They even occasionally prey on adult [[tundra swan]]s (''Cygnus columbianus'').<ref name=j20/> Young [[trumpeter swan]]s (''Cygnus buccinator'') are also taken, and an unsuccessful attack on an adult swan has been photographed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corace III |first1=R. Gregory |first2=Damon L. |last2=McCormick |first3=Vincent |last3=Cavalieri |title=Population growth parameters of a reintroduced trumpeter swan flock, Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Michigan, USA (1991-2004) |journal=Waterbirds |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=2006 |pages=38–42 |doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[38:PGPOAR]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=86088372}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utahbirds.org/featarts/2008/EagleAndSwan.htm |title=Bald Eagle attacking a Trumpeter Swan |website=Utahbirds.org |access-date=August 21, 2012}}</ref>

Bald eagles have been occasionally recorded as killing other [[Bird of prey|raptors]]. In some cases, these may be attacks of competition or [[kleptoparasitism]] on rival species but end with the consumption of the dead victims. Nine species of other [[accipitrid]]s and owls are known to have been preyed upon by bald eagles. Owl prey species have ranged in size from [[western screech-owl]]s (''Megascops kennicotti'') to [[snowy owl]]s (''Bubo scandiacus'').<ref name= Palmer/><ref name= Sherrod2/><ref name= Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackman |first1=R. E. |last2=Hunt |first2=W. G. |last3=Jenkins |first3=J. M. |last4=Detrich |first4=P. J. |year=1999 |title=Prey of nesting bald eagles in northern California |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=87–96}}</ref> Larger diurnal raptors known to have fallen victim to bald eagles have included [[red-tailed hawk]]s (''Buteo jamaicensis''),<ref name="Leschner"/> [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=R. G. |last2=Estes |first2=J. A. |last3=Ricca |first3=M. A. |last4=Miles |first4=A. K. |last5=Forsman |first5=E. D. |year=2008 |title=Bald eagles and sea otters in the Aleutian archipelago: indirect effects of trophic cascades |journal=Ecology |volume=89 |issue=10 |pages=2725–2735 |doi=10.1890/07-1818.1 |pmid=18959310 |bibcode=2008Ecol...89.2725A}}</ref> [[northern goshawk]]s (''Accipiter gentilis''),<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Cartron |editor-first1=J. L. E. |year=2010 |chapter=Chapter 11: Northern Goshawk |title=Raptors of New Mexico |publisher=UNM Press |isbn=978-0-8263-4145-7}}</ref> [[osprey]]s (''Pandion haliaetus'')<ref name="MacDonald"/> and [[Black vulture|black]] (''Coragyps atratus'') and [[turkey vulture]]s (''Cathartes aura'').<ref name="Coleman"/>

===Mammals===
[[File:Bald Eagle on Seedskadee NWR (24062616030).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Carrying a caught [[cottontail rabbit]] in [[Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge]]]]
[[File:Haliaeetus leucocephalus-whale-USFWS.jpg|thumb|right|A bald eagle on a whale carcass]]
[[Mammal]]ian preys are generally less frequently taken than fish or avian prey. However, in some regions, such as landlocked areas of North America, wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium-sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations, such as [[prairie dog]]s (''Cynomys'' sp.) and [[jackrabbit]]s (''Lepus'' sp.).<ref name="Travsky"/><ref name="Jones"/> Bald eagles in [[Seedskadee National Wildlife Refuge]] often hunt in pair to catch cottontails, jackrabbits and prairie dogs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sweetwaternow.com/seedskadee-officials-discuss-bald-eagle-hunting-strategies/ |title=Seedskadee Officials Discuss Bald Eagle Hunting Strategies |date=January 24, 2016}}</ref> They can attack and prey on rabbits and hares of nearly any size, from [[marsh rabbit]]s (''Sylvilagus palustris'') to [[black-tailed jackrabbit|black]] and [[white-tailed jackrabbit]]s (''Lepus californicus'' & ''L. townsendii''), and [[Arctic hare]]s (''Lepus arcticus'').<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980">{{cite journal |last1=McEwan |first1=Linda C. |first2=David H. |last2=Hirth |title=Food habits of the Bald Eagle in north-central Florida. |journal=The Condor |volume=82 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=229–231 |doi=10.2307/1367485 |jstor=1367485}}</ref><ref name = 'Kralovec'>{{cite journal |author=Kralovec, Mary L. |display-authors=et al |title=Nesting productivity, food habits, and nest sites of bald eagles in Colorado and southeastern Wyoming. |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |year=1992 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=356–361 |doi=10.2307/3671786 |jstor=3671786}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'/> In [[San Luis Valley]], white-tailed jackrabbits can be important prey.<ref name=j20/> Additionally, rodents such as [[montane vole]]s (''Microtus montanus''), [[brown rat]]s (''Rattus norvegicus''), and various [[squirrel]]s are taken as supplementary prey.<ref name = 'Kralovec'/><ref name ='ADW'/><ref name = 'Todd.'/> Larger rodents such as [[muskrat]]s (''Ondatra zibethicus''), young or small adult [[nutria]]s (''Myocastor coypus'') and [[groundhog]]s (''Marmota monax'') are also preyed upon.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burnam |first1=Jonathan |first2=Michael T. |last2=Mengak |title=Managing wildlife damage: Nutria (''Myocastor coypus'') |publisher=University of Georgia |year=2007 |hdl=10724/31054 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10724/31054}}</ref><ref>Wheeler, B. K. (2003). Raptors of eastern north America (p. 439). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> Even [[American porcupine]]s (''Erethizon dorsatum'') are reportedly attacked and killed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmata |first1=A. R. |first2=J. E. |last2=Toepfer |title=Fall migration of Bald Eagles produced in northern Saskatchewan |journal=Blue Jay |volume=43 |issue=4 |year=1985 |doi=10.29173/bluejay4393 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Where available, seal colonies can provide a lot of food. On [[Protection Island (Washington state)|Protection Island]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], they commonly feed on [[harbor seal]] (''Phoca vitulina'') afterbirths, still-borns and sickly seal pups.<ref name="Hayward"/> Similarly, bald eagles in Alaska readily prey on [[sea otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'') pups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherrod |first1=S. K. |first2=C. M. |last2=White |first3=F. S. L. |last3=Williamson |year=1976 |title=Biology of the Bald Eagle on Amchitka Island, Alaska |journal=The Living Bird |volume=15 |pages=143–182}}</ref> Small to medium-sized terrestrial mammalian carnivores can be taken infrequently. [[Mustelid]] including [[American marten]]s (''Martes pennanti''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Roger A. |last1=Powell |title=''Martes pennanti'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=156 |date=May 8, 1981 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.2307/3504050 |jstor=3504050 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[American mink]]s (''Neogale vison''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=James W. |doi=10.2307/3536608 |title=Comparative Home Ranges and Food Habits of Bald Eagles Nesting in Four Aquatic Habitats in Western Washington |journal=Northwestern Naturalist |volume=83 |issue=3 |publisher=Society for Northwestern Vertebrate Biology |year=2002 |pages=101–08 |jstor=3536608}}</ref> and larger [[fisher cat]]s (''Pekania pennanti'') are known to be hunted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erb |first1=John |first2=B. |last2=Sampson |first3=P. |last3=Coy |title=Survival and causes of mortality for fisher and marten in Minnesota |journal=Minn. Dep. Nat. Resour. Summ. Wildl. Res. Findings |year=2010 |pages=24–31}}</ref> [[Fox]]es are also taken, including [[Island fox]]es ('' Urocyon littoralis ''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Claybourne M. |last1=Moore |first2=Paul W. |last2=Collins |title=''Urocyon littoralis'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=489 |date=June 23, 1995 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.2307/3504160 |jstor=3504160 |s2cid=215746001 |doi-access=free|pmc=7149463 }}</ref> [[Arctic fox]]es (''Vulpes lagopus''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alexandra M. |last1=Audet |first2=C. Brian |last2=Robbins |first3=Serge |last3=Larivière |doi=10.1644/0.713.1 |title=''Alopex lagopus'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=713 |date=December 26, 2002 |pages=1–10 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[grey fox]]es (''Urocyon cinereoargenteus'').<ref name = 'Oberholser'>{{cite book |last1=Oberholser |first1=Harry Church |title=The North American eagles and their economic relations |year=1906}}</ref> Although fox farmers claimed that bald eagle heavily prey on young and adult free-range Arctic fox, the predation events are sporadic.<ref name=bent/><ref>Anthony, R. G., Estes, J. A., Ricca, M. A., Miles, A. K., & Forsman, E. D. (2008). Bald eagles and sea otters in the Aleutian archipelago: indirect effects of trophic cascades. Ecology, 89(10), 2725-2735.</ref> In one instance, two bald Eagles fed upon a [[red fox]] (''Vulpes vulpes'') that had tried to cross a frozen [[Delaware Lake (Ohio)|Delaware Lake]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://columbusaudubon.org/auto-da-gathering-of-eaglesraft/ |title=A Gathering of Eagles |website=Columbus Audubon |date=February 11, 2021}}</ref> Other medium-sized carnivorans such as [[striped skunk]]s (''Mephitis mephitis''),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Julia |last1=Wade-Smith |first2=B. J. |last2=Verts |doi=10.2307/3503883 |title=''Mephitis mephitis'' |journal=Mammalian Species |issue=173 |date=May 25, 1982 |pages=1–7 |jstor=3503883 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[American hog-nosed skunk]]s (''Conepatus leuconotus''),<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Mammalian Species |doi=10.1644/827.1 |title=Conepatus leuconotus (Carnivora: Mephitidae) |year=2009 |last1=Dragoo |first1=Jerry W. |last2=Sheffield |first2=Steven R. |volume=827 |pages=1–8 |s2cid=86591926 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[common raccoon]]s (''Procyon lotor'')<ref name = 'Oberholser'/> are taken, as well as [[domestic cat]]s (''Felis catus'') and [[dog]]s (''canis familiaris'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Two young eagles preying on cats in Campbell River |url=https://www.timescolonist.com/local-news/two-young-eagles-preying-on-cats-in-campbell-river-4608302 |first=Sian |last=Thompson |date=April 23, 2014 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=Victoria Times Colonist |language=en}}</ref><ref name=bent/>

Other wild mammalian prey include fawns of deer such as [[white-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'') and [[Sitka deer]] (''Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis''), which weigh around {{cvt|3|kg}} can be taken alive by bald eagles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duquette |first1=Jared F. |display-authors=et al |title=Bald eagle predation of a white-tailed deer fawn |journal=Northeastern Naturalist |volume=18 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.1656/045.018.0108 |s2cid=85843273}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=Sophie L. |title=Bald Eagle Predation on Sitka Black-Tailed Deer Fawns |journal=Northwestern Naturalist |volume=97 |issue=1 |year=2016 |pages=66–69 |doi=10.1898/1051-1733-97.1.66 |s2cid=35280296}}</ref> In one instance, a bald eagle was observed carrying {{cvt|6.8|kg}} [[mule deer]] (''Odocoileus hemionus'') fawn.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wood, G. |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Additionally, [[Virginia opossum]]s (''Didelphis virginiana'') can be preyed upon. Still, predation events are rare due to their nocturnal habits.<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/shorts/FNZrexQw8v0 |title=Eagle eating live Opossum |website=[[YouTube]] |date=October 10, 2021}}</ref><ref name = 'Oberholser'/>

Together with the golden eagle, bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock, especially sheep (''Ovis aries''). There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation, some specimens weighing up to {{convert|11|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, by bald eagles. Still, they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle. Both species prefer native, wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods.<ref name="ICWDM"/> There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult, pregnant ewe (then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles), which, weighing on average over {{convert|60|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species.<ref name="McEneaney"/>

===Reptiles and other prey===
Supplemental prey is readily taken given the opportunity. In some areas, reptiles may become regular prey, especially in warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high. Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile.<ref name="Travsky"/> In coastal [[New Jersey]], 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles. The main species found were [[Sternotherus odoratus|common musk turtles]] (''Sternotherus odoratus''), [[diamondback terrapin]] (''Malaclemys terrapin'') and juvenile [[common snapping turtle]]s (''Chelydra serpentina''). In these New Jersey nests, mainly subadult and small adults were taken, ranging in carapace length from {{convert|9.2|to|17.1|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Wetlands"/> Similarly, many turtles were recorded in the diet in the [[Chesapeake Bay]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=W. S. |year=1982 |title=Turtles as a food source of nesting bald eagles in the Chesapeake Bay region |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=49–51}}</ref> In [[Texas]], [[Apalone|softshell turtle]]s are the most frequently taken prey,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mabie |first1=David W. |first2=M. Todd |last2=Merendino |first3=David H. |last3=Reid |title=Prey of nesting bald eagles in Texas |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=1995 |pages=10–14}}</ref> and a large number of [[Barbour's map turtle]]s are taken in [[Torreya State Park]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Means |first1=D. Bruce |first2=A. N. N. E. |last2=Harvey |title=Barbour's map turtle in the diet of nesting bald eagles |journal=Florida Field Naturalist |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=1999 |pages=14–16}}</ref> Other reptilian and amphibian prey includes [[southern alligator lizard]]s (''Elgaria multicarinata''),<ref name = 'Erlandson.'/> snakes such as [[garter snake]]s and [[rattlesnake]]s,<ref name="FPL"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olson |first=Storrs L. |date=October 1, 2006 |title=Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Preying on Maritime Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis pallidulus, on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia |url=http://www.canadianfieldnaturalist.ca/index.php/cfn/article/view/359 |journal=The Canadian Field-Naturalist |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=477 |doi=10.22621/cfn.v120i4.359 |issn=0008-3550 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grubb |first1=Teryl G. |title=Food habits of bald eagles breeding in the Arizona desert |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |year=1995 |pages=258–274}}</ref><ref name = 'Beans'/> and [[Greater siren]] (''Siren lacertina'').<ref name="McEwan, Linda C. 1980"/>

Invertebrates are occasionally taken. In [[Alaska]], eagles feed on [[sea urchin]]s (''Strongylocentrotus'' sp.), chitons, mussels, and crabs.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=J.M. |last1=Erlandson |first2=M.L. |last2=Moss |title=Shellfish feeders, carrion eaters, and aquatic adaptations |journal=American Antiquity |volume=66 |year=2001 |pages=413–432 |doi=10.2307/2694242 |jstor=2694242 |s2cid=83743872}}</ref> Other various mollusks such as [[land snail]]s, [[abalones]], [[bivalves]], [[Littorinidae|periwinkles]], [[blue mussels]], [[squid]]s, and [[starfish]]es are taken as well.<ref name = 'Erlandson.'/>

=== Interspecific predatory relationships ===
[[File:Birds of Prey Wisconsin 08.jpg|thumb|left|Pursuing an [[osprey]] to steal fish]]
When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing [[mammal]]s such as [[coyote]]s (''Canis latrans'') and foxes, and birds such as [[corvid]]s, [[gull]]s, vultures and other [[Bird of prey|raptors]].<ref name="Sherrod"/> Occasionally, coyotes, [[bobcat]]s (''Lynx rufus'') and [[Dog|domestic dogs]] (''Canis familiaris'') can displace eagles from carrion, usually less confident immature birds, as has been recorded in Maine.<ref name=j14/> Bald eagles are less active, bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism (although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed).<ref name='Erlandson.'/><ref name= Watson/> However, the two species are roughly equal in size, aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way. Neither species is known to be dominant, and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved.<ref name="BNA"/> Wintering bald and golden eagles in [[Utah]] both sometimes won conflicts, though in one recorded instance a single bald eagle successfully displaced two consecutive golden eagles from a kill.<ref name= Sabine>{{cite journal |last1=Sabine |first1=N. |last2=Gardner |first2=K. |year=1987 |title=Agonistic encounters between Bald Eagles and other raptors wintering in west central Utah |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=21 |pages=118–120}}</ref>

Though bald eagles face few natural threats, an unusual attacker comes in the form of the common loon (''G. immer''), which is also taken by eagles as prey. While common loons normally avoid conflict, they are highly territorial and will attack predators and competitors by stabbing at them with their knife-like bill; as the range of the bald eagle has increased following conservation efforts, these interactions have been observed on several occasions, including a fatality of a bald eagle in Maine that is presumed to have come about as a result of it attacking a nest, then having a fatal [[Penetrating trauma|puncture wound]] inflicted by one or both loon parents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Why did a loon stab a bald eagle through the heart? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/why-loon-stabbed-bald-eagle-heart/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528012828/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/05/why-loon-stabbed-bald-eagle-heart/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 28, 2020 |access-date=December 1, 2020 |website=National Geographic |first=Jason |last=Bittel |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle, with the bald species estimated to number at least 150,000 individuals, about twice as many as there are golden eagles estimated to live in North America.<ref name= Watson/><ref name="Bio"/> Due to this, bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources.<ref name= Watson/> Despite the potential for contention between these animals, in [[New Jersey]] during winter, a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt [[snow geese]] alongside each other without conflict. Similarly, both eagle species have been recorded, via video-monitoring, to feed on gut piles and carcasses of [[white-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'') in remote forest clearings in the eastern [[Appalachian Mountains]] without apparent conflict.<ref name= Watson/> Bald eagles are frequently mobbed by smaller raptors, due to their infrequent but unpredictable tendency to hunt other birds of prey.<ref name= Sabine/> Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites, especially in winters when fish are harder to come by. They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as [[osprey]]s, [[heron]]s and even [[otter]]s.<ref name="BNA"/><ref name=j13/> They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus''), prairie dogs from [[ferruginous hawk]]s (''Buteo regalis'') and even jackrabbits from [[golden eagle]]s.<ref name=j7/><ref name=j8/> When they approach scavengers such as dogs, gulls or vultures at carrion sites, they often attack them in an attempt to force them to disgorge their food.<ref name="FPL"/> Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed upon in the wild and are thus considered [[apex predator]]s.<ref name=r6/>